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INFO-DIR-SECTION GNU Gettext Utilities
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* gettext: (gettext). GNU gettext utilities.
* autopoint: (gettext)autopoint Invocation. Copy gettext infrastructure.
* envsubst: (gettext)envsubst Invocation. Expand environment variables.
* gettextize: (gettext)gettextize Invocation. Prepare a package for gettext.
* msgattrib: (gettext)msgattrib Invocation. Select part of a PO file.
* msgcat: (gettext)msgcat Invocation. Combine several PO files.
* msgcmp: (gettext)msgcmp Invocation. Compare a PO file and template.
* msgcomm: (gettext)msgcomm Invocation. Match two PO files.
* msgconv: (gettext)msgconv Invocation. Convert PO file to encoding.
* msgen: (gettext)msgen Invocation. Create an English PO file.
* msgexec: (gettext)msgexec Invocation. Process a PO file.
* msgfilter: (gettext)msgfilter Invocation. Pipe a PO file through a filter.
* msgfmt: (gettext)msgfmt Invocation. Make MO files out of PO files.
* msggrep: (gettext)msggrep Invocation. Select part of a PO file.
* msginit: (gettext)msginit Invocation. Create a fresh PO file.
* msgmerge: (gettext)msgmerge Invocation. Update a PO file from template.
* msgunfmt: (gettext)msgunfmt Invocation. Uncompile MO file into PO file.
* msguniq: (gettext)msguniq Invocation. Unify duplicates for PO file.
* ngettext: (gettext)ngettext Invocation. Translate a message with plural.
* xgettext: (gettext)xgettext Invocation. Extract strings into a PO file.
* ISO639: (gettext)Language Codes. ISO 639 language codes.
* ISO3166: (gettext)Country Codes. ISO 3166 country codes.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

This file provides documentation for GNU `gettext' utilities. It
also serves as a reference for the free Translation Project.

This manual is free documentation. It is dually licensed under the
GNU FDL and the GNU GPL. This means that you can redistribute this
manual under either of these two licenses, at your choice.

This manual is covered by the GNU FDL. Permission is granted to
copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License (FDL), either version 1.2 of the License, or
(at your option) any later version published by the Free Software
Foundation (FSF); with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Text,
and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in
*Note GNU FDL::.

This manual is covered by the GNU GPL. You can redistribute it
and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License
(GPL), either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). A copy of the
license is included in *Note GNU GPL::.

File: gettext.info, Node: Top, Next: Introduction, Prev: (dir), Up: (dir)

GNU `gettext' utilities
***********************

This manual documents the GNU gettext tools and the GNU libintl
library, version 0.17.

* Menu:

* Introduction:: Introduction
* Users:: The User's View
* PO Files:: The Format of PO Files
* Sources:: Preparing Program Sources
* Template:: Making the PO Template File
* Creating:: Creating a New PO File
* Updating:: Updating Existing PO Files
* Editing:: Editing PO Files
* Manipulating:: Manipulating PO Files
* Binaries:: Producing Binary MO Files
* Programmers:: The Programmer's View
* Translators:: The Translator's View
* Maintainers:: The Maintainer's View
* Installers:: The Installer's and Distributor's View
* Programming Languages:: Other Programming Languages
* Conclusion:: Concluding Remarks

* Language Codes:: ISO 639 language codes
* Country Codes:: ISO 3166 country codes
* Licenses:: Licenses

* Program Index:: Index of Programs
* Option Index:: Index of Command-Line Options
* Variable Index:: Index of Environment Variables
* PO Mode Index:: Index of Emacs PO Mode Commands
* Autoconf Macro Index:: Index of Autoconf Macros
* Index:: General Index

--- The Detailed Node Listing ---

Introduction

* Why:: The Purpose of GNU `gettext'
* Concepts:: I18n, L10n, and Such
* Aspects:: Aspects in Native Language Support
* Files:: Files Conveying Translations
* Overview:: Overview of GNU `gettext'

The User's View

* System Installation:: Questions During Operating System Installation
* Setting the GUI Locale:: How to Specify the Locale Used by GUI Programs
* Setting the POSIX Locale:: How to Specify the Locale According to POSIX
* Installing Localizations:: How to Install Additional Translations

Setting the POSIX Locale

* Locale Names:: How a Locale Specification Looks Like
* Locale Environment Variables:: Which Environment Variable Specfies What
* The LANGUAGE variable:: How to Specify a Priority List of Languages

Preparing Program Sources

* Importing:: Importing the `gettext' declaration
* Triggering:: Triggering `gettext' Operations
* Preparing Strings:: Preparing Translatable Strings
* Mark Keywords:: How Marks Appear in Sources
* Marking:: Marking Translatable Strings
* c-format Flag:: Telling something about the following string
* Special cases:: Special Cases of Translatable Strings
* Bug Report Address:: Letting Users Report Translation Bugs
* Names:: Marking Proper Names for Translation
* Libraries:: Preparing Library Sources

Making the PO Template File

* xgettext Invocation:: Invoking the `xgettext' Program

Creating a New PO File

* msginit Invocation:: Invoking the `msginit' Program
* Header Entry:: Filling in the Header Entry

Updating Existing PO Files

* msgmerge Invocation:: Invoking the `msgmerge' Program

Editing PO Files

* KBabel:: KDE's PO File Editor
* Gtranslator:: GNOME's PO File Editor
* PO Mode:: Emacs's PO File Editor
* Compendium:: Using Translation Compendia

Emacs's PO File Editor

* Installation:: Completing GNU `gettext' Installation
* Main PO Commands:: Main Commands
* Entry Positioning:: Entry Positioning
* Normalizing:: Normalizing Strings in Entries
* Translated Entries:: Translated Entries
* Fuzzy Entries:: Fuzzy Entries
* Untranslated Entries:: Untranslated Entries
* Obsolete Entries:: Obsolete Entries
* Modifying Translations:: Modifying Translations
* Modifying Comments:: Modifying Comments
* Subedit:: Mode for Editing Translations
* C Sources Context:: C Sources Context
* Auxiliary:: Consulting Auxiliary PO Files

Using Translation Compendia

* Creating Compendia:: Merging translations for later use
* Using Compendia:: Using older translations if they fit

Manipulating PO Files

* msgcat Invocation:: Invoking the `msgcat' Program
* msgconv Invocation:: Invoking the `msgconv' Program
* msggrep Invocation:: Invoking the `msggrep' Program
* msgfilter Invocation:: Invoking the `msgfilter' Program
* msguniq Invocation:: Invoking the `msguniq' Program
* msgcomm Invocation:: Invoking the `msgcomm' Program
* msgcmp Invocation:: Invoking the `msgcmp' Program
* msgattrib Invocation:: Invoking the `msgattrib' Program
* msgen Invocation:: Invoking the `msgen' Program
* msgexec Invocation:: Invoking the `msgexec' Program
* Colorizing:: Highlighting parts of PO files
* libgettextpo:: Writing your own programs that process PO files

Highlighting parts of PO files

* The --color option:: Triggering colorized output
* The TERM variable:: The environment variable `TERM'
* The --style option:: The `--style' option
* Style rules:: Style rules for PO files
* Customizing less:: Customizing `less' for viewing PO files

Producing Binary MO Files

* msgfmt Invocation:: Invoking the `msgfmt' Program
* msgunfmt Invocation:: Invoking the `msgunfmt' Program
* MO Files:: The Format of GNU MO Files

The Programmer's View

* catgets:: About `catgets'
* gettext:: About `gettext'
* Comparison:: Comparing the two interfaces
* Using libintl.a:: Using libintl.a in own programs
* gettext grok:: Being a `gettext' grok
* Temp Programmers:: Temporary Notes for the Programmers Chapter

About `catgets'

* Interface to catgets:: The interface
* Problems with catgets:: Problems with the `catgets' interface?!

About `gettext'

* Interface to gettext:: The interface
* Ambiguities:: Solving ambiguities
* Locating Catalogs:: Locating message catalog files
* Charset conversion:: How to request conversion to Unicode
* Contexts:: Solving ambiguities in GUI programs
* Plural forms:: Additional functions for handling plurals
* Optimized gettext:: Optimization of the *gettext functions

Temporary Notes for the Programmers Chapter

* Temp Implementations:: Temporary - Two Possible Implementations
* Temp catgets:: Temporary - About `catgets'
* Temp WSI:: Temporary - Why a single implementation
* Temp Notes:: Temporary - Notes

The Translator's View

* Trans Intro 0:: Introduction 0
* Trans Intro 1:: Introduction 1
* Discussions:: Discussions
* Organization:: Organization
* Information Flow:: Information Flow
* Prioritizing messages:: How to find which messages to translate first

Organization

* Central Coordination:: Central Coordination
* National Teams:: National Teams
* Mailing Lists:: Mailing Lists

National Teams

* Sub-Cultures:: Sub-Cultures
* Organizational Ideas:: Organizational Ideas

The Maintainer's View

* Flat and Non-Flat:: Flat or Non-Flat Directory Structures
* Prerequisites:: Prerequisite Works
* gettextize Invocation:: Invoking the `gettextize' Program
* Adjusting Files:: Files You Must Create or Alter
* autoconf macros:: Autoconf macros for use in `configure.ac'
* CVS Issues:: Integrating with CVS
* Release Management:: Creating a Distribution Tarball

Files You Must Create or Alter

* po/POTFILES.in:: `POTFILES.in' in `po/'
* po/LINGUAS:: `LINGUAS' in `po/'
* po/Makevars:: `Makevars' in `po/'
* po/Rules-*:: Extending `Makefile' in `po/'
* configure.ac:: `configure.ac' at top level
* config.guess:: `config.guess', `config.sub' at top level
* mkinstalldirs:: `mkinstalldirs' at top level
* aclocal:: `aclocal.m4' at top level
* acconfig:: `acconfig.h' at top level
* config.h.in:: `config.h.in' at top level
* Makefile:: `Makefile.in' at top level
* src/Makefile:: `Makefile.in' in `src/'
* lib/gettext.h:: `gettext.h' in `lib/'

Autoconf macros for use in `configure.ac'

* AM_GNU_GETTEXT:: AM_GNU_GETTEXT in `gettext.m4'
* AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION:: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION in `gettext.m4'
* AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED:: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED in `gettext.m4'
* AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR:: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR in `intldir.m4'
* AM_PO_SUBDIRS:: AM_PO_SUBDIRS in `po.m4'
* AM_ICONV:: AM_ICONV in `iconv.m4'

Integrating with CVS

* Distributed CVS:: Avoiding version mismatch in distributed development
* Files under CVS:: Files to put under CVS version control
* autopoint Invocation:: Invoking the `autopoint' Program

Other Programming Languages

* Language Implementors:: The Language Implementor's View
* Programmers for other Languages:: The Programmer's View
* Translators for other Languages:: The Translator's View
* Maintainers for other Languages:: The Maintainer's View
* List of Programming Languages:: Individual Programming Languages
* List of Data Formats:: Internationalizable Data

The Translator's View

* c-format:: C Format Strings
* objc-format:: Objective C Format Strings
* sh-format:: Shell Format Strings
* python-format:: Python Format Strings
* lisp-format:: Lisp Format Strings
* elisp-format:: Emacs Lisp Format Strings
* librep-format:: librep Format Strings
* scheme-format:: Scheme Format Strings
* smalltalk-format:: Smalltalk Format Strings
* java-format:: Java Format Strings
* csharp-format:: C# Format Strings
* awk-format:: awk Format Strings
* object-pascal-format:: Object Pascal Format Strings
* ycp-format:: YCP Format Strings
* tcl-format:: Tcl Format Strings
* perl-format:: Perl Format Strings
* php-format:: PHP Format Strings
* gcc-internal-format:: GCC internal Format Strings
* qt-format:: Qt Format Strings
* kde-format:: KDE Format Strings
* boost-format:: Boost Format Strings

Individual Programming Languages

* C:: C, C++, Objective C
* sh:: sh - Shell Script
* bash:: bash - Bourne-Again Shell Script
* Python:: Python
* Common Lisp:: GNU clisp - Common Lisp
* clisp C:: GNU clisp C sources
* Emacs Lisp:: Emacs Lisp
* librep:: librep
* Scheme:: GNU guile - Scheme
* Smalltalk:: GNU Smalltalk
* Java:: Java
* C#:: C#
* gawk:: GNU awk
* Pascal:: Pascal - Free Pascal Compiler
* wxWidgets:: wxWidgets library
* YCP:: YCP - YaST2 scripting language
* Tcl:: Tcl - Tk's scripting language
* Perl:: Perl
* PHP:: PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
* Pike:: Pike
* GCC-source:: GNU Compiler Collection sources

sh - Shell Script

* Preparing Shell Scripts:: Preparing Shell Scripts for Internationalization
* gettext.sh:: Contents of `gettext.sh'
* gettext Invocation:: Invoking the `gettext' program
* ngettext Invocation:: Invoking the `ngettext' program
* envsubst Invocation:: Invoking the `envsubst' program
* eval_gettext Invocation:: Invoking the `eval_gettext' function
* eval_ngettext Invocation:: Invoking the `eval_ngettext' function

Perl

* General Problems:: General Problems Parsing Perl Code
* Default Keywords:: Which Keywords Will xgettext Look For?
* Special Keywords:: How to Extract Hash Keys
* Quote-like Expressions:: What are Strings And Quote-like Expressions?
* Interpolation I:: Invalid String Interpolation
* Interpolation II:: Valid String Interpolation
* Parentheses:: When To Use Parentheses
* Long Lines:: How To Grok with Long Lines
* Perl Pitfalls:: Bugs, Pitfalls, and Things That Do Not Work

Internationalizable Data

* POT:: POT - Portable Object Template
* RST:: Resource String Table
* Glade:: Glade - GNOME user interface description

Concluding Remarks

* History:: History of GNU `gettext'
* References:: Related Readings

Language Codes

* Usual Language Codes:: Two-letter ISO 639 language codes
* Rare Language Codes:: Three-letter ISO 639 language codes

Licenses

* GNU GPL:: GNU General Public License
* GNU LGPL:: GNU Lesser General Public License
* GNU FDL:: GNU Free Documentation License

File: gettext.info, Node: Introduction, Next: Users, Prev: Top, Up: Top

1 Introduction
**************

This chapter explains the goals sought in the creation of GNU
`gettext' and the free Translation Project. Then, it explains a few
broad concepts around Native Language Support, and positions message
translation with regard to other aspects of national and cultural
variance, as they apply to programs. It also surveys those files used
to convey the translations. It explains how the various tools interact
in the initial generation of these files, and later, how the maintenance
cycle should usually operate.

In this manual, we use _he_ when speaking of the programmer or
maintainer, _she_ when speaking of the translator, and _they_ when
speaking of the installers or end users of the translated program.
This is only a convenience for clarifying the documentation. It is
_absolutely_ not meant to imply that some roles are more appropriate to
males or females. Besides, as you might guess, GNU `gettext' is meant
to be useful for people using computers, whatever their sex, race,
religion or nationality!

Please send suggestions and corrections to:

Internet address:
bug-gnu-gettext@gnu.org

Please include the manual's edition number and update date in your
messages.

* Menu:

* Why:: The Purpose of GNU `gettext'
* Concepts:: I18n, L10n, and Such
* Aspects:: Aspects in Native Language Support
* Files:: Files Conveying Translations
* Overview:: Overview of GNU `gettext'

File: gettext.info, Node: Why, Next: Concepts, Prev: Introduction, Up: Introduction

1.1 The Purpose of GNU `gettext'
================================

Usually, programs are written and documented in English, and use
English at execution time to interact with users. This is true not
only of GNU software, but also of a great deal of proprietary and free
software. Using a common language is quite handy for communication
between developers, maintainers and users from all countries. On the
other hand, most people are less comfortable with English than with
their own native language, and would prefer to use their mother tongue
for day to day's work, as far as possible. Many would simply _love_ to
see their computer screen showing a lot less of English, and far more
of their own language.

However, to many people, this dream might appear so far fetched that
they may believe it is not even worth spending time thinking about it.
They have no confidence at all that the dream might ever become true.
Yet some have not lost hope, and have organized themselves. The
Translation Project is a formalization of this hope into a workable
structure, which has a good chance to get all of us nearer the
achievement of a truly multi-lingual set of programs.

GNU `gettext' is an important step for the Translation Project, as
it is an asset on which we may build many other steps. This package
offers to programmers, translators and even users, a well integrated
set of tools and documentation. Specifically, the GNU `gettext'
utilities are a set of tools that provides a framework within which
other free packages may produce multi-lingual messages. These tools
include

* A set of conventions about how programs should be written to
support message catalogs.

* A directory and file naming organization for the message catalogs
themselves.

* A runtime library supporting the retrieval of translated messages.

* A few stand-alone programs to massage in various ways the sets of
translatable strings, or already translated strings.

* A library supporting the parsing and creation of files containing
translated messages.

* A special mode for Emacs(1) which helps preparing these sets and
bringing them up to date.

GNU `gettext' is designed to minimize the impact of
internationalization on program sources, keeping this impact as small
and hardly noticeable as possible. Internationalization has better
chances of succeeding if it is very light weighted, or at least, appear
to be so, when looking at program sources.

The Translation Project also uses the GNU `gettext' distribution as
a vehicle for documenting its structure and methods. This goes beyond
the strict technicalities of documenting the GNU `gettext' proper. By
so doing, translators will find in a single place, as far as possible,
all they need to know for properly doing their translating work. Also,
this supplemental documentation might also help programmers, and even
curious users, in understanding how GNU `gettext' is related to the
remainder of the Translation Project, and consequently, have a glimpse
at the _big picture_.

---------- Footnotes ----------

(1) In this manual, all mentions of Emacs refers to either GNU Emacs
or to XEmacs, which people sometimes call FSF Emacs and Lucid Emacs,
respectively.

File: gettext.info, Node: Concepts, Next: Aspects, Prev: Why, Up: Introduction

1.2 I18n, L10n, and Such
========================

Two long words appear all the time when we discuss support of native
language in programs, and these words have a precise meaning, worth
being explained here, once and for all in this document. The words are
_internationalization_ and _localization_. Many people, tired of
writing these long words over and over again, took the habit of writing
"i18n" and "l10n" instead, quoting the first and last letter of each
word, and replacing the run of intermediate letters by a number merely
telling how many such letters there are. But in this manual, in the
sake of clarity, we will patiently write the names in full, each time...

By "internationalization", one refers to the operation by which a
program, or a set of programs turned into a package, is made aware of
and able to support multiple languages. This is a generalization
process, by which the programs are untied from calling only English
strings or other English specific habits, and connected to generic ways
of doing the same, instead. Program developers may use various
techniques to internationalize their programs. Some of these have been
standardized. GNU `gettext' offers one of these standards. *Note
Programmers::.

By "localization", one means the operation by which, in a set of
programs already internationalized, one gives the program all needed
information so that it can adapt itself to handle its input and output
in a fashion which is correct for some native language and cultural
habits. This is a particularisation process, by which generic methods
already implemented in an internationalized program are used in
specific ways. The programming environment puts several functions to
the programmers disposal which allow this runtime configuration. The
formal description of specific set of cultural habits for some country,
together with all associated translations targeted to the same native
language, is called the "locale" for this language or country. Users
achieve localization of programs by setting proper values to special
environment variables, prior to executing those programs, identifying
which locale should be used.

In fact, locale message support is only one component of the cultural
data that makes up a particular locale. There are a whole host of
routines and functions provided to aid programmers in developing
internationalized software and which allow them to access the data
stored in a particular locale. When someone presently refers to a
particular locale, they are obviously referring to the data stored
within that particular locale. Similarly, if a programmer is referring
to "accessing the locale routines", they are referring to the complete
suite of routines that access all of the locale's information.

One uses the expression "Native Language Support", or merely NLS,
for speaking of the overall activity or feature encompassing both
internationalization and localization, allowing for multi-lingual
interactions in a program. In a nutshell, one could say that
internationalization is the operation by which further localizations
are made possible.

Also, very roughly said, when it comes to multi-lingual messages,
internationalization is usually taken care of by programmers, and
localization is usually taken care of by translators.

File: gettext.info, Node: Aspects, Next: Files, Prev: Concepts, Up: Introduction

1.3 Aspects in Native Language Support
======================================

For a totally multi-lingual distribution, there are many things to
translate beyond output messages.

* As of today, GNU `gettext' offers a complete toolset for
translating messages output by C programs. Perl scripts and shell
scripts will also need to be translated. Even if there are today
some hooks by which this can be done, these hooks are not
integrated as well as they should be.

* Some programs, like `autoconf' or `bison', are able to produce
other programs (or scripts). Even if the generating programs
themselves are internationalized, the generated programs they
produce may need internationalization on their own, and this
indirect internationalization could be automated right from the
generating program. In fact, quite usually, generating and
generated programs could be internationalized independently, as
the effort needed is fairly orthogonal.

* A few programs include textual tables which might need translation
themselves, independently of the strings contained in the program
itself. For example, RFC 1345 gives an English description for
each character which the `recode' program is able to reconstruct
at execution. Since these descriptions are extracted from the RFC
by mechanical means, translating them properly would require a
prior translation of the RFC itself.

* Almost all programs accept options, which are often worded out so
to be descriptive for the English readers; one might want to
consider offering translated versions for program options as well.

* Many programs read, interpret, compile, or are somewhat driven by
input files which are texts containing keywords, identifiers, or
replies which are inherently translatable. For example, one may
want `gcc' to allow diacriticized characters in identifiers or use
translated keywords; `rm -i' might accept something else than `y'
or `n' for replies, etc. Even if the program will eventually make
most of its output in the foreign languages, one has to decide
whether the input syntax, option values, etc., are to be localized
or not.

* The manual accompanying a package, as well as all documentation
files in the distribution, could surely be translated, too.
Translating a manual, with the intent of later keeping up with
updates, is a major undertaking in itself, generally.

As we already stressed, translation is only one aspect of locales.
Other internationalization aspects are system services and are handled
in GNU `libc'. There are many attributes that are needed to define a
country's cultural conventions. These attributes include beside the
country's native language, the formatting of the date and time, the
representation of numbers, the symbols for currency, etc. These local
"rules" are termed the country's locale. The locale represents the
knowledge needed to support the country's native attributes.

There are a few major areas which may vary between countries and
hence, define what a locale must describe. The following list helps
putting multi-lingual messages into the proper context of other tasks
related to locales. See the GNU `libc' manual for details.

_Characters and Codesets_
The codeset most commonly used through out the USA and most English
speaking parts of the world is the ASCII codeset. However, there
are many characters needed by various locales that are not found
within this codeset. The 8-bit ISO 8859-1 code set has most of
the special characters needed to handle the major European
languages. However, in many cases, choosing ISO 8859-1 is
nevertheless not adequate: it doesn't even handle the major
European currency. Hence each locale will need to specify which
codeset they need to use and will need to have the appropriate
character handling routines to cope with the codeset.

_Currency_
The symbols used vary from country to country as does the position
used by the symbol. Software needs to be able to transparently
display currency figures in the native mode for each locale.

_Dates_
The format of date varies between locales. For example, Christmas
day in 1994 is written as 12/25/94 in the USA and as 25/12/94 in
Australia. Other countries might use ISO 8601 dates, etc.

Time of the day may be noted as HH:MM, HH.MM, or otherwise. Some
locales require time to be specified in 24-hour mode rather than
as AM or PM. Further, the nature and yearly extent of the
Daylight Saving correction vary widely between countries.

_Numbers_
Numbers can be represented differently in different locales. For
example, the following numbers are all written correctly for their
respective locales:

12,345.67 English
12.345,67 German
12345,67 French
1,2345.67 Asia

Some programs could go further and use different unit systems, like
English units or Metric units, or even take into account variants
about how numbers are spelled in full.

_Messages_
The most obvious area is the language support within a locale.
This is where GNU `gettext' provides the means for developers and
users to easily change the language that the software uses to
communicate to the user.

These areas of cultural conventions are called _locale categories_.
It is an unfortunate term; _locale aspects_ or _locale feature
categories_ would be a better term, because each "locale category"
describes an area or task that requires localization. The concrete data
that describes the cultural conventions for such an area and for a
particular culture is also called a _locale category_. In this sense,
a locale is composed of several locale categories: the locale category
describing the codeset, the locale category describing the formatting
of numbers, the locale category containing the translated messages, and
so on.

Components of locale outside of message handling are standardized in
the ISO C standard and the POSIX:2001 standard (also known as the SUSV3
specification). GNU `libc' fully implements this, and most other
modern systems provide a more or less reasonable support for at least
some of the missing components.

File: gettext.info, Node: Files, Next: Overview, Prev: Aspects, Up: Introduction

1.4 Files Conveying Translations
================================

The letters PO in `.po' files means Portable Object, to distinguish
it from `.mo' files, where MO stands for Machine Object. This
paradigm, as well as the PO file format, is inspired by the NLS
standard developed by Uniforum, and first implemented by Sun in their
Solaris system.

PO files are meant to be read and edited by humans, and associate
each original, translatable string of a given package with its
translation in a particular target language. A single PO file is
dedicated to a single target language. If a package supports many
languages, there is one such PO file per language supported, and each
package has its own set of PO files. These PO files are best created by
the `xgettext' program, and later updated or refreshed through the
`msgmerge' program. Program `xgettext' extracts all marked messages
from a set of C files and initializes a PO file with empty
translations. Program `msgmerge' takes care of adjusting PO files
between releases of the corresponding sources, commenting obsolete
entries, initializing new ones, and updating all source line
references. Files ending with `.pot' are kind of base translation
files found in distributions, in PO file format.

MO files are meant to be read by programs, and are binary in nature.
A few systems already offer tools for creating and handling MO files as
part of the Native Language Support coming with the system, but the
format of these MO files is often different from system to system, and
non-portable. The tools already provided with these systems don't
support all the features of GNU `gettext'. Therefore GNU `gettext'
uses its own format for MO files. Files ending with `.gmo' are really
MO files, when it is known that these files use the GNU format.

File: gettext.info, Node: Overview, Prev: Files, Up: Introduction

1.5 Overview of GNU `gettext'
=============================

The following diagram summarizes the relation between the files
handled by GNU `gettext' and the tools acting on these files. It is
followed by somewhat detailed explanations, which you should read while
keeping an eye on the diagram. Having a clear understanding of these
interrelations will surely help programmers, translators and
maintainers.

As a programmer, the first step to bringing GNU `gettext' into your
package is identifying, right in the C sources, those strings which are
meant to be translatable, and those which are untranslatable. This
tedious job can be done a little more comfortably using emacs PO mode,
but you can use any means familiar to you for modifying your C sources.
Beside this some other simple, standard changes are needed to properly
initialize the translation library. *Note Sources::, for more
information about all this.

For newly written software the strings of course can and should be
marked while writing it. The `gettext' approach makes this very easy.
Simply put the following lines at the beginning of each file or in a
central header file:

#define _(String) (String)
#define N_(String) String
#define textdomain(Domain)
#define bindtextdomain(Package, Directory)

Doing this allows you to prepare the sources for internationalization.
Later when you feel ready for the step to use the `gettext' library
simply replace these definitions by the following:

#include <libintl.h>
#define _(String) gettext (String)
#define gettext_noop(String) String
#define N_(String) gettext_noop (String)

and link against `libintl.a' or `libintl.so'. Note that on GNU
systems, you don't need to link with `libintl' because the `gettext'
library functions are already contained in GNU libc. That is all you
have to change.

Once the C sources have been modified, the `xgettext' program is
used to find and extract all translatable strings, and create a PO
template file out of all these. This `PACKAGE.pot' file contains all
original program strings. It has sets of pointers to exactly where in
C sources each string is used. All translations are set to empty. The
letter `t' in `.pot' marks this as a Template PO file, not yet oriented
towards any particular language. *Note xgettext Invocation::, for more
details about how one calls the `xgettext' program. If you are
_really_ lazy, you might be interested at working a lot more right
away, and preparing the whole distribution setup (*note Maintainers::).
By doing so, you spare yourself typing the `xgettext' command, as
`make' should now generate the proper things automatically for you!

The first time through, there is no `LANG.po' yet, so the `msgmerge'
step may be skipped and replaced by a mere copy of `PACKAGE.pot' to
`LANG.po', where LANG represents the target language. See *Note
Creating:: for details.

Then comes the initial translation of messages. Translation in
itself is a whole matter, still exclusively meant for humans, and whose
complexity far overwhelms the level of this manual. Nevertheless, a
few hints are given in some other chapter of this manual (*note
Translators::). You will also find there indications about how to
contact translating teams, or becoming part of them, for sharing your
translating concerns with others who target the same native language.

While adding the translated messages into the `LANG.po' PO file, if
you are not using one of the dedicated PO file editors (*note
Editing::), you are on your own for ensuring that your efforts fully
respect the PO file format, and quoting conventions (*note PO Files::).
This is surely not an impossible task, as this is the way many people
have handled PO files around 1995. On the other hand, by using a PO
file editor, most details of PO file format are taken care of for you,
but you have to acquire some familiarity with PO file editor itself.

If some common translations have already been saved into a compendium
PO file, translators may use PO mode for initializing untranslated
entries from the compendium, and also save selected translations into
the compendium, updating it (*note Compendium::). Compendium files are
meant to be exchanged between members of a given translation team.

Programs, or packages of programs, are dynamic in nature: users write
bug reports and suggestion for improvements, maintainers react by
modifying programs in various ways. The fact that a package has
already been internationalized should not make maintainers shy of
adding new strings, or modifying strings already translated. They just
do their job the best they can. For the Translation Project to work
smoothly, it is important that maintainers do not carry translation
concerns on their already loaded shoulders, and that translators be
kept as free as possible of programming concerns.

The only concern maintainers should have is carefully marking new
strings as translatable, when they should be, and do not otherwise
worry about them being translated, as this will come in proper time.
Consequently, when programs and their strings are adjusted in various
ways by maintainers, and for matters usually unrelated to translation,
`xgettext' would construct `PACKAGE.pot' files which are evolving over
time, so the translations carried by `LANG.po' are slowly fading out of
date.

It is important for translators (and even maintainers) to understand
that package translation is a continuous process in the lifetime of a
package, and not something which is done once and for all at the start.
After an initial burst of translation activity for a given package,
interventions are needed once in a while, because here and there,
translated entries become obsolete, and new untranslated entries
appear, needing translation.

The `msgmerge' program has the purpose of refreshing an already
existing `LANG.po' file, by comparing it with a newer `PACKAGE.pot'
template file, extracted by `xgettext' out of recent C sources. The
refreshing operation adjusts all references to C source locations for
strings, since these strings move as programs are modified. Also,
`msgmerge' comments out as obsolete, in `LANG.po', those already
translated entries which are no longer used in the program sources
(*note Obsolete Entries::). It finally discovers new strings and
inserts them in the resulting PO file as untranslated entries (*note
Untranslated Entries::). *Note msgmerge Invocation::, for more
information about what `msgmerge' really does.

Whatever route or means taken, the goal is to obtain an updated
`LANG.po' file offering translations for all strings.

The temporal mobility, or fluidity of PO files, is an integral part
of the translation game, and should be well understood, and accepted.
People resisting it will have a hard time participating in the
Translation Project, or will give a hard time to other participants! In
particular, maintainers should relax and include all available official
PO files in their distributions, even if these have not recently been
updated, without exerting pressure on the translator teams to get the
job done. The pressure should rather come from the community of users
speaking a particular language, and maintainers should consider
themselves fairly relieved of any concern about the adequacy of
translation files. On the other hand, translators should reasonably
try updating the PO files they are responsible for, while the package
is undergoing pretest, prior to an official distribution.

Once the PO file is complete and dependable, the `msgfmt' program is
used for turning the PO file into a machine-oriented format, which may
yield efficient retrieval of translations by the programs of the
package, whenever needed at runtime (*note MO Files::). *Note msgfmt
Invocation::, for more information about all modes of execution for the
`msgfmt' program.

Finally, the modified and marked C sources are compiled and linked
with the GNU `gettext' library, usually through the operation of
`make', given a suitable `Makefile' exists for the project, and the
resulting executable is installed somewhere users will find it. The MO
files themselves should also be properly installed. Given the
appropriate environment variables are set (*note Setting the POSIX
Locale::), the program should localize itself automatically, whenever
it executes.

The remainder of this manual has the purpose of explaining in depth
the various steps outlined above.

File: gettext.info, Node: Users, Next: PO Files, Prev: Introduction, Up: Top

2 The User's View
*****************

Nowadays, when users log into a computer, they usually find that all
their programs show messages in their native language - at least for
users of languages with an active free software community, like French
or German; to a lesser extent for languages with a smaller
participation in free software and the GNU project, like Hindi and
Filipino.

How does this work? How can the user influence the language that is
used by the programs? This chapter will answer it.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: System Installation, Next: Setting the GUI Locale, Prev: Users, Up: Users

2.1 Operating System Installation
=================================

The default language is often already specified during operating
system installation. When the operating system is installed, the
installer typically asks for the language used for the installation
process and, separately, for the language to use in the installed
system. Some OS installers only ask for the language once.

This determines the system-wide default language for all users. But
the installers often give the possibility to install extra
localizations for additional languages. For example, the localizations
of KDE (the K Desktop Environment) and OpenOffice.org are often bundled
separately, as one installable package per language.

At this point it is good to consider the intended use of the
machine: If it is a machine designated for personal use, additional
localizations are probably not necessary. If, however, the machine is
in use in an organization or company that has international
relationships, one can consider the needs of guest users. If you have
a guest from abroad, for a week, what could be his preferred locales?
It may be worth installing these additional localizations ahead of
time, since they cost only a bit of disk space at this point.

The system-wide default language is the locale configuration that is
used when a new user account is created. But the user can have his own
locale configuration that is different from the one of the other users
of the same machine. He can specify it, typically after the first
login, as described in the next section.

File: gettext.info, Node: Setting the GUI Locale, Next: Setting the POSIX Locale, Prev: System Installation, Up: Users

2.2 Setting the Locale Used by GUI Programs
===========================================

The immediately available programs in a user's desktop come from a
group of programs called a "desktop environment"; it usually includes
the window manager, a web browser, a text editor, and more. The most
common free desktop environments are KDE, GNOME, and Xfce.

The locale used by GUI programs of the desktop environment can be
specified in a configuration screen called "control center", "language
settings" or "country settings".

Individual GUI programs that are not part of the desktop environment
can have their locale specified either in a settings panel, or through
environment variables.

For some programs, it is possible to specify the locale through
environment variables, possibly even to a different locale than the
desktop's locale. This means, instead of starting a program through a
menu or from the file system, you can start it from the command-line,
after having set some environment variables. The environment variables
can be those specified in the next section (*Note Setting the POSIX
Locale::); for some versions of KDE, however, the locale is specified
through a variable `KDE_LANG', rather than `LANG' or `LC_ALL'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Setting the POSIX Locale, Next: Installing Localizations, Prev: Setting the GUI Locale, Up: Users

2.3 Setting the Locale through Environment Variables
====================================================

As a user, if your language has been installed for this package, in
the simplest case, you only have to set the `LANG' environment variable
to the appropriate `LL_CC' combination. For example, let's suppose
that you speak German and live in Germany. At the shell prompt, merely
execute `setenv LANG de_DE' (in `csh'), `export LANG; LANG=de_DE' (in
`sh') or `export LANG=de_DE' (in `bash'). This can be done from your
`.login' or `.profile' file, once and for all.

* Menu:

* Locale Names:: How a Locale Specification Looks Like
* Locale Environment Variables:: Which Environment Variable Specfies What
* The LANGUAGE variable:: How to Specify a Priority List of Languages

File: gettext.info, Node: Locale Names, Next: Locale Environment Variables, Prev: Setting the POSIX Locale, Up: Setting the POSIX Locale

2.3.1 Locale Names
------------------

A locale name usually has the form `LL_CC'. Here `LL' is an ISO 639
two-letter language code, and `CC' is an ISO 3166 two-letter country
code. For example, for German in Germany, LL is `de', and CC is `DE'.
You find a list of the language codes in appendix *Note Language
Codes:: and a list of the country codes in appendix *Note Country
Codes::.

You might think that the country code specification is redundant.
But in fact, some languages have dialects in different countries. For
example, `de_AT' is used for Austria, and `pt_BR' for Brazil. The
country code serves to distinguish the dialects.

Many locale names have an extended syntax `LL_CC.ENCODING' that also
specifies the character encoding. These are in use because between
2000 and 2005, most users have switched to locales in UTF-8 encoding.
For example, the German locale on glibc systems is nowadays
`de_DE.UTF-8'. The older name `de_DE' still refers to the German
locale as of 2000 that stores characters in ISO-8859-1 encoding - a
text encoding that cannot even accomodate the Euro currency sign.

Some locale names use `LL_CC.@VARIANT' instead of `LL_CC'. The
`@VARIANT' can denote any kind of characteristics that is not already
implied by the language LL and the country CC. It can denote a
particular monetary unit. For example, on glibc systems, `de_DE@euro'
denotes the locale that uses the Euro currency, in contrast to the
older locale `de_DE' which implies the use of the currency before 2002.
It can also denote a dialect of the language, or the script used to
write text (for example, `sr_RS@latin' uses the Latin script, whereas
`sr_RS' uses the Cyrillic script to write Serbian), or the orthography
rules, or similar.

On other systems, some variations of this scheme are used, such as
`LL'. You can get the list of locales supported by your system for
your language by running the command `locale -a | grep '^LL''.

There is also a special locale, called `C'. When it is used, it
disables all localization: in this locale, all programs standardized by
POSIX use English messages and an unspecified character encoding (often
US-ASCII, but sometimes also ISO-8859-1 or UTF-8, depending on the
operating system).

File: gettext.info, Node: Locale Environment Variables, Next: The LANGUAGE variable, Prev: Locale Names, Up: Setting the POSIX Locale

2.3.2 Locale Environment Variables
----------------------------------

A locale is composed of several _locale categories_, see *Note
Aspects::. When a program looks up locale dependent values, it does
this according to the following environment variables, in priority
order:

1. `LANGUAGE'

2. `LC_ALL'

3. `LC_xxx', according to selected locale category: `LC_CTYPE',
`LC_NUMERIC', `LC_TIME', `LC_COLLATE', `LC_MONETARY',
`LC_MESSAGES', ...

4. `LANG'

Variables whose value is set but is empty are ignored in this lookup.

`LANG' is the normal environment variable for specifying a locale.
As a user, you normally set this variable (unless some of the other
variables have already been set by the system, in `/etc/profile' or
similar initialization files).

`LC_CTYPE', `LC_NUMERIC', `LC_TIME', `LC_COLLATE', `LC_MONETARY',
`LC_MESSAGES', and so on, are the environment variables meant to
override `LANG' and affecting a single locale category only. For
example, assume you are a Swedish user in Spain, and you want your
programs to handle numbers and dates according to Spanish conventions,
and only the messages should be in Swedish. Then you could create a
locale named `sv_ES' or `sv_ES.UTF-8' by use of the `localedef'
program. But it is simpler, and achieves the same effect, to set the
`LANG' variable to `es_ES.UTF-8' and the `LC_MESSAGES' variable to
`sv_SE.UTF-8'; these two locales come already preinstalled with the
operating system.

`LC_ALL' is an environment variable that overrides all of these. It
is typically used in scripts that run particular programs. For example,
`configure' scripts generated by GNU autoconf use `LC_ALL' to make sure
that the configuration tests don't operate in locale dependent ways.

Some systems, unfortunately, set `LC_ALL' in `/etc/profile' or in
similar initialization files. As a user, you therefore have to unset
this variable if you want to set `LANG' and optionally some of the other
`LC_xxx' variables.

The `LANGUAGE' variable is described in the next subsection.

File: gettext.info, Node: The LANGUAGE variable, Prev: Locale Environment Variables, Up: Setting the POSIX Locale

2.3.3 Specifying a Priority List of Languages
---------------------------------------------

Not all programs have translations for all languages. By default, an
English message is shown in place of a nonexistent translation. If you
understand other languages, you can set up a priority list of languages.
This is done through a different environment variable, called
`LANGUAGE'. GNU `gettext' gives preference to `LANGUAGE' over `LC_ALL'
and `LANG' for the purpose of message handling, but you still need to
have `LANG' (or `LC_ALL') set to the primary language; this is required
by other parts of the system libraries. For example, some Swedish
users who would rather read translations in German than English for
when Swedish is not available, set `LANGUAGE' to `sv:de' while leaving
`LANG' to `sv_SE'.

Special advice for Norwegian users: The language code for Norwegian
bokma*l changed from `no' to `nb' recently (in 2003). During the
transition period, while some message catalogs for this language are
installed under `nb' and some older ones under `no', it is recommended
for Norwegian users to set `LANGUAGE' to `nb:no' so that both newer and
older translations are used.

In the `LANGUAGE' environment variable, but not in the other
environment variables, `LL_CC' combinations can be abbreviated as `LL'
to denote the language's main dialect. For example, `de' is equivalent
to `de_DE' (German as spoken in Germany), and `pt' to `pt_PT'
(Portuguese as spoken in Portugal) in this context.

Note: The variable `LANGUAGE' is ignored if the locale is set to
`C'. In other words, you have to first enable localization, by setting
`LANG' (or `LC_ALL') to a value other than `C', before you can use a
language priority list through the `LANGUAGE' variable.

File: gettext.info, Node: Installing Localizations, Prev: Setting the POSIX Locale, Up: Users

2.4 Installing Translations for Particular Programs
===================================================

Languages are not equally well supported in all packages using GNU
`gettext', and more translations are added over time. Usually, you use
the translations that are shipped with the operating system or with
particular packages that you install afterwards. But you can also
install newer localizations directly. For doing this, you will need an
understanding where each localization file is stored on the file system.

For programs that participate in the Translation Project, you can
start looking for translations here:
`http://translationproject.org/team/index.html'. A snapshot of this
information is also found in the `ABOUT-NLS' file that is shipped with
GNU gettext.

For programs that are part of the KDE project, the starting point is:
`http://i18n.kde.org/'.

For programs that are part of the GNOME project, the starting point
is: `http://www.gnome.org/i18n/'.

For other programs, you may check whether the program's source code
package contains some `LL.po' files; often they are kept together in a
directory called `po/'. Each `LL.po' file contains the message
translations for the language whose abbreviation of LL.

File: gettext.info, Node: PO Files, Next: Sources, Prev: Users, Up: Top

3 The Format of PO Files
************************

The GNU `gettext' toolset helps programmers and translators at
producing, updating and using translation files, mainly those PO files
which are textual, editable files. This chapter explains the format of
PO files.

A PO file is made up of many entries, each entry holding the relation
between an original untranslated string and its corresponding
translation. All entries in a given PO file usually pertain to a
single project, and all translations are expressed in a single target
language. One PO file "entry" has the following schematic structure:

WHITE-SPACE
# TRANSLATOR-COMMENTS
#. EXTRACTED-COMMENTS
#: REFERENCE...
#, FLAG...
#| msgid PREVIOUS-UNTRANSLATED-STRING
msgid UNTRANSLATED-STRING
msgstr TRANSLATED-STRING

The general structure of a PO file should be well understood by the
translator. When using PO mode, very little has to be known about the
format details, as PO mode takes care of them for her.

A simple entry can look like this:

#: lib/error.c:116
msgid "Unknown system error"
msgstr "Error desconegut del sistema"

Entries begin with some optional white space. Usually, when
generated through GNU `gettext' tools, there is exactly one blank line
between entries. Then comments follow, on lines all starting with the
character `#'. There are two kinds of comments: those which have some
white space immediately following the `#' - the TRANSLATOR COMMENTS -,
which comments are created and maintained exclusively by the
translator, and those which have some non-white character just after the
`#' - the AUTOMATIC COMMENTS -, which comments are created and
maintained automatically by GNU `gettext' tools. Comment lines
starting with `#.' contain comments given by the programmer, directed
at the translator; these comments are called EXTRACTED COMMENTS because
the `xgettext' program extracts them from the program's source code.
Comment lines starting with `#:' contain references to the program's
source code. Comment lines starting with `#,' contain flags; more
about these below. Comment lines starting with `#|' contain the
previous untranslated string for which the translator gave a
translation.

All comments, of either kind, are optional.

After white space and comments, entries show two strings, namely
first the untranslated string as it appears in the original program
sources, and then, the translation of this string. The original string
is introduced by the keyword `msgid', and the translation, by `msgstr'.
The two strings, untranslated and translated, are quoted in various
ways in the PO file, using `"' delimiters and `\' escapes, but the
translator does not really have to pay attention to the precise quoting
format, as PO mode fully takes care of quoting for her.

The `msgid' strings, as well as automatic comments, are produced and
managed by other GNU `gettext' tools, and PO mode does not provide
means for the translator to alter these. The most she can do is merely
deleting them, and only by deleting the whole entry. On the other
hand, the `msgstr' string, as well as translator comments, are really
meant for the translator, and PO mode gives her the full control she
needs.

The comment lines beginning with `#,' are special because they are
not completely ignored by the programs as comments generally are. The
comma separated list of FLAGs is used by the `msgfmt' program to give
the user some better diagnostic messages. Currently there are two
forms of flags defined:

`fuzzy'
This flag can be generated by the `msgmerge' program or it can be
inserted by the translator herself. It shows that the `msgstr'
string might not be a correct translation (anymore). Only the
translator can judge if the translation requires further
modification, or is acceptable as is. Once satisfied with the
translation, she then removes this `fuzzy' attribute. The
`msgmerge' program inserts this when it combined the `msgid' and
`msgstr' entries after fuzzy search only. *Note Fuzzy Entries::.

`c-format'
`no-c-format'
These flags should not be added by a human. Instead only the
`xgettext' program adds them. In an automated PO file processing
system as proposed here the user changes would be thrown away
again as soon as the `xgettext' program generates a new template
file.

The `c-format' flag tells that the untranslated string and the
translation are supposed to be C format strings. The `no-c-format'
flag tells that they are not C format strings, even though the
untranslated string happens to look like a C format string (with
`%' directives).

In case the `c-format' flag is given for a string the `msgfmt'
does some more tests to check to validity of the translation.
*Note msgfmt Invocation::, *Note c-format Flag:: and *Note
c-format::.

`objc-format'
`no-objc-format'
Likewise for Objective C, see *Note objc-format::.

`sh-format'
`no-sh-format'
Likewise for Shell, see *Note sh-format::.

`python-format'
`no-python-format'
Likewise for Python, see *Note python-format::.

`lisp-format'
`no-lisp-format'
Likewise for Lisp, see *Note lisp-format::.

`elisp-format'
`no-elisp-format'
Likewise for Emacs Lisp, see *Note elisp-format::.

`librep-format'
`no-librep-format'
Likewise for librep, see *Note librep-format::.

`scheme-format'
`no-scheme-format'
Likewise for Scheme, see *Note scheme-format::.

`smalltalk-format'
`no-smalltalk-format'
Likewise for Smalltalk, see *Note smalltalk-format::.

`java-format'
`no-java-format'
Likewise for Java, see *Note java-format::.

`csharp-format'
`no-csharp-format'
Likewise for C#, see *Note csharp-format::.

`awk-format'
`no-awk-format'
Likewise for awk, see *Note awk-format::.

`object-pascal-format'
`no-object-pascal-format'
Likewise for Object Pascal, see *Note object-pascal-format::.

`ycp-format'
`no-ycp-format'
Likewise for YCP, see *Note ycp-format::.

`tcl-format'
`no-tcl-format'
Likewise for Tcl, see *Note tcl-format::.

`perl-format'
`no-perl-format'
Likewise for Perl, see *Note perl-format::.

`perl-brace-format'
`no-perl-brace-format'
Likewise for Perl brace, see *Note perl-format::.

`php-format'
`no-php-format'
Likewise for PHP, see *Note php-format::.

`gcc-internal-format'
`no-gcc-internal-format'
Likewise for the GCC sources, see *Note gcc-internal-format::.

`qt-format'
`no-qt-format'
Likewise for Qt, see *Note qt-format::.

`kde-format'
`no-kde-format'
Likewise for KDE, see *Note kde-format::.

`boost-format'
`no-boost-format'
Likewise for Boost, see *Note boost-format::.

It is also possible to have entries with a context specifier. They
look like this:

WHITE-SPACE
# TRANSLATOR-COMMENTS
#. EXTRACTED-COMMENTS
#: REFERENCE...
#, FLAG...
#| msgctxt PREVIOUS-CONTEXT
#| msgid PREVIOUS-UNTRANSLATED-STRING
msgctxt CONTEXT
msgid UNTRANSLATED-STRING
msgstr TRANSLATED-STRING

The context serves to disambiguate messages with the same
UNTRANSLATED-STRING. It is possible to have several entries with the
same UNTRANSLATED-STRING in a PO file, provided that they each have a
different CONTEXT. Note that an empty CONTEXT string and an absent
`msgctxt' line do not mean the same thing.

A different kind of entries is used for translations which involve
plural forms.

WHITE-SPACE
# TRANSLATOR-COMMENTS
#. EXTRACTED-COMMENTS
#: REFERENCE...
#, FLAG...
#| msgid PREVIOUS-UNTRANSLATED-STRING-SINGULAR
#| msgid_plural PREVIOUS-UNTRANSLATED-STRING-PLURAL
msgid UNTRANSLATED-STRING-SINGULAR
msgid_plural UNTRANSLATED-STRING-PLURAL
msgstr[0] TRANSLATED-STRING-CASE-0
...
msgstr[N] TRANSLATED-STRING-CASE-N

Such an entry can look like this:

#: src/msgcmp.c:338 src/po-lex.c:699
#, c-format
msgid "found %d fatal error"
msgid_plural "found %d fatal errors"
msgstr[0] "s'ha trobat %d error fatal"
msgstr[1] "s'han trobat %d errors fatals"

Here also, a `msgctxt' context can be specified before `msgid', like
above.

The PREVIOUS-UNTRANSLATED-STRING is optionally inserted by the
`msgmerge' program, at the same time when it marks a message fuzzy. It
helps the translator to see which changes were done by the developers
on the UNTRANSLATED-STRING.

It happens that some lines, usually whitespace or comments, follow
the very last entry of a PO file. Such lines are not part of any entry,
and will be dropped when the PO file is processed by the tools, or may
disturb some PO file editors.

The remainder of this section may be safely skipped by those using a
PO file editor, yet it may be interesting for everybody to have a better
idea of the precise format of a PO file. On the other hand, those
wishing to modify PO files by hand should carefully continue reading on.

Each of UNTRANSLATED-STRING and TRANSLATED-STRING respects the C
syntax for a character string, including the surrounding quotes and
embedded backslashed escape sequences. When the time comes to write
multi-line strings, one should not use escaped newlines. Instead, a
closing quote should follow the last character on the line to be
continued, and an opening quote should resume the string at the
beginning of the following PO file line. For example:

msgid ""
"Here is an example of how one might continue a very long string\n"
"for the common case the string represents multi-line output.\n"

In this example, the empty string is used on the first line, to allow
better alignment of the `H' from the word `Here' over the `f' from the
word `for'. In this example, the `msgid' keyword is followed by three
strings, which are meant to be concatenated. Concatenating the empty
string does not change the resulting overall string, but it is a way
for us to comply with the necessity of `msgid' to be followed by a
string on the same line, while keeping the multi-line presentation
left-justified, as we find this to be a cleaner disposition. The empty
string could have been omitted, but only if the string starting with
`Here' was promoted on the first line, right after `msgid'.(1) It was
not really necessary either to switch between the two last quoted
strings immediately after the newline `\n', the switch could have
occurred after _any_ other character, we just did it this way because
it is neater.

One should carefully distinguish between end of lines marked as `\n'
_inside_ quotes, which are part of the represented string, and end of
lines in the PO file itself, outside string quotes, which have no
incidence on the represented string.

Outside strings, white lines and comments may be used freely.
Comments start at the beginning of a line with `#' and extend until the
end of the PO file line. Comments written by translators should have
the initial `#' immediately followed by some white space. If the `#'
is not immediately followed by white space, this comment is most likely
generated and managed by specialized GNU tools, and might disappear or
be replaced unexpectedly when the PO file is given to `msgmerge'.

---------- Footnotes ----------

(1) This limitation is not imposed by GNU `gettext', but is for
compatibility with the `msgfmt' implementation on Solaris.

File: gettext.info, Node: Sources, Next: Template, Prev: PO Files, Up: Top

4 Preparing Program Sources
***************************

For the programmer, changes to the C source code fall into three
categories. First, you have to make the localization functions known
to all modules needing message translation. Second, you should
properly trigger the operation of GNU `gettext' when the program
initializes, usually from the `main' function. Last, you should
identify, adjust and mark all constant strings in your program needing
translation.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Importing, Next: Triggering, Prev: Sources, Up: Sources

4.1 Importing the `gettext' declaration
=======================================

Presuming that your set of programs, or package, has been adjusted
so all needed GNU `gettext' files are available, and your `Makefile'
files are adjusted (*note Maintainers::), each C module having
translated C strings should contain the line:

#include <libintl.h>

Similarly, each C module containing `printf()'/`fprintf()'/...
calls with a format string that could be a translated C string (even if
the C string comes from a different C module) should contain the line:

#include <libintl.h>

File: gettext.info, Node: Triggering, Next: Preparing Strings, Prev: Importing, Up: Sources

4.2 Triggering `gettext' Operations
===================================

The initialization of locale data should be done with more or less
the same code in every program, as demonstrated below:

int
main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
...
setlocale (LC_ALL, "");
bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
textdomain (PACKAGE);
...
}

PACKAGE and LOCALEDIR should be provided either by `config.h' or by
the Makefile. For now consult the `gettext' or `hello' sources for
more information.

The use of `LC_ALL' might not be appropriate for you. `LC_ALL'
includes all locale categories and especially `LC_CTYPE'. This latter
category is responsible for determining character classes with the
`isalnum' etc. functions from `ctype.h' which could especially for
programs, which process some kind of input language, be wrong. For
example this would mean that a source code using the c, (c-cedilla
character) is runnable in France but not in the U.S.

Some systems also have problems with parsing numbers using the
`scanf' functions if an other but the `LC_ALL' locale category is used.
The standards say that additional formats but the one known in the
`"C"' locale might be recognized. But some systems seem to reject
numbers in the `"C"' locale format. In some situation, it might also
be a problem with the notation itself which makes it impossible to
recognize whether the number is in the `"C"' locale or the local
format. This can happen if thousands separator characters are used.
Some locales define this character according to the national
conventions to `'.'' which is the same character used in the `"C"'
locale to denote the decimal point.

So it is sometimes necessary to replace the `LC_ALL' line in the
code above by a sequence of `setlocale' lines

{
...
setlocale (LC_CTYPE, "");
setlocale (LC_MESSAGES, "");
...
}

On all POSIX conformant systems the locale categories `LC_CTYPE',
`LC_MESSAGES', `LC_COLLATE', `LC_MONETARY', `LC_NUMERIC', and `LC_TIME'
are available. On some systems which are only ISO C compliant,
`LC_MESSAGES' is missing, but a substitute for it is defined in GNU
gettext's `<libintl.h>' and in GNU gnulib's `<locale.h>'.

Note that changing the `LC_CTYPE' also affects the functions
declared in the `<ctype.h>' standard header and some functions declared
in the `<string.h>' and `<stdlib.h>' standard headers. If this is not
desirable in your application (for example in a compiler's parser), you
can use a set of substitute functions which hardwire the C locale, such
as found in the modules `c-ctype', `c-strcase', `c-strcasestr',
`c-strtod', `c-strtold' in the GNU gnulib source distribution.

It is also possible to switch the locale forth and back between the
environment dependent locale and the C locale, but this approach is
normally avoided because a `setlocale' call is expensive, because it is
tedious to determine the places where a locale switch is needed in a
large program's source, and because switching a locale is not
multithread-safe.

File: gettext.info, Node: Preparing Strings, Next: Mark Keywords, Prev: Triggering, Up: Sources

4.3 Preparing Translatable Strings
==================================

Before strings can be marked for translations, they sometimes need to
be adjusted. Usually preparing a string for translation is done right
before marking it, during the marking phase which is described in the
next sections. What you have to keep in mind while doing that is the
following.

* Decent English style.

* Entire sentences.

* Split at paragraphs.

* Use format strings instead of string concatenation.

* Avoid unusual markup and unusual control characters.

Let's look at some examples of these guidelines.

Translatable strings should be in good English style. If slang
language with abbreviations and shortcuts is used, often translators
will not understand the message and will produce very inappropriate
translations.

"%s: is parameter\n"

This is nearly untranslatable: Is the displayed item _a_ parameter or
_the_ parameter?

"No match"

The ambiguity in this message makes it unintelligible: Is the program
attempting to set something on fire? Does it mean "The given object does
not match the template"? Does it mean "The template does not fit for any
of the objects"?

In both cases, adding more words to the message will help both the
translator and the English speaking user.

Translatable strings should be entire sentences. It is often not
possible to translate single verbs or adjectives in a substitutable way.

printf ("File %s is %s protected", filename, rw ? "write" : "read");

Most translators will not look at the source and will thus only see the
string `"File %s is %s protected"', which is unintelligible. Change
this to

printf (rw ? "File %s is write protected" : "File %s is read protected",
filename);

This way the translator will not only understand the message, she will
also be able to find the appropriate grammatical construction. A French
translator for example translates "write protected" like "protected
against writing".

Entire sentences are also important because in many languages, the
declination of some word in a sentence depends on the gender or the
number (singular/plural) of another part of the sentence. There are
usually more interdependencies between words than in English. The
consequence is that asking a translator to translate two half-sentences
and then combining these two half-sentences through dumb string
concatenation will not work, for many languages, even though it would
work for English. That's why translators need to handle entire
sentences.

Often sentences don't fit into a single line. If a sentence is
output using two subsequent `printf' statements, like this

printf ("Locale charset \"%s\" is different from\n", lcharset);
printf ("input file charset \"%s\".\n", fcharset);

the translator would have to translate two half sentences, but nothing
in the POT file would tell her that the two half sentences belong
together. It is necessary to merge the two `printf' statements so that
the translator can handle the entire sentence at once and decide at
which place to insert a line break in the translation (if at all):

printf ("Locale charset \"%s\" is different from\n\
input file charset \"%s\".\n", lcharset, fcharset);

You may now ask: how about two or more adjacent sentences? Like in
this case:

puts ("Apollo 13 scenario: Stack overflow handling failed.");
puts ("On the next stack overflow we will crash!!!");

Should these two statements merged into a single one? I would recommend
to merge them if the two sentences are related to each other, because
then it makes it easier for the translator to understand and translate
both. On the other hand, if one of the two messages is a stereotypic
one, occurring in other places as well, you will do a favour to the
translator by not merging the two. (Identical messages occurring in
several places are combined by xgettext, so the translator has to
handle them once only.)

Translatable strings should be limited to one paragraph; don't let a
single message be longer than ten lines. The reason is that when the
translatable string changes, the translator is faced with the task of
updating the entire translated string. Maybe only a single word will
have changed in the English string, but the translator doesn't see that
(with the current translation tools), therefore she has to proofread
the entire message.

Many GNU programs have a `--help' output that extends over several
screen pages. It is a courtesy towards the translators to split such a
message into several ones of five to ten lines each. While doing that,
you can also attempt to split the documented options into groups, such
as the input options, the output options, and the informative output
options. This will help every user to find the option he is looking
for.

Hardcoded string concatenation is sometimes used to construct English
strings:

strcpy (s, "Replace ");
strcat (s, object1);
strcat (s, " with ");
strcat (s, object2);
strcat (s, "?");

In order to present to the translator only entire sentences, and also
because in some languages the translator might want to swap the order
of `object1' and `object2', it is necessary to change this to use a
format string:

sprintf (s, "Replace %s with %s?", object1, object2);

A similar case is compile time concatenation of strings. The ISO C
99 include file `<inttypes.h>' contains a macro `PRId64' that can be
used as a formatting directive for outputting an `int64_t' integer
through `printf'. It expands to a constant string, usually "d" or "ld"
or "lld" or something like this, depending on the platform. Assume you
have code like

printf ("The amount is %0" PRId64 "\n", number);

The `gettext' tools and library have special support for these
`<inttypes.h>' macros. You can therefore simply write

printf (gettext ("The amount is %0" PRId64 "\n"), number);

The PO file will contain the string "The amount is %0<PRId64>\n". The
translators will provide a translation containing "%0<PRId64>" as well,
and at runtime the `gettext' function's result will contain the
appropriate constant string, "d" or "ld" or "lld".

This works only for the predefined `<inttypes.h>' macros. If you
have defined your own similar macros, let's say `MYPRId64', that are
not known to `xgettext', the solution for this problem is to change the
code like this:

char buf1[100];
sprintf (buf1, "%0" MYPRId64, number);
printf (gettext ("The amount is %s\n"), buf1);

This means, you put the platform dependent code in one statement,
and the internationalization code in a different statement. Note that
a buffer length of 100 is safe, because all available hardware integer
types are limited to 128 bits, and to print a 128 bit integer one needs
at most 54 characters, regardless whether in decimal, octal or
hexadecimal.

All this applies to other programming languages as well. For
example, in Java and C#, string concatenation is very frequently used,
because it is a compiler built-in operator. Like in C, in Java, you
would change

System.out.println("Replace "+object1+" with "+object2+"?");

into a statement involving a format string:

System.out.println(
MessageFormat.format("Replace {0} with {1}?",
new Object[] { object1, object2 }));

Similarly, in C#, you would change

Console.WriteLine("Replace "+object1+" with "+object2+"?");

into a statement involving a format string:

Console.WriteLine(
String.Format("Replace {0} with {1}?", object1, object2));

Unusual markup or control characters should not be used in
translatable strings. Translators will likely not understand the
particular meaning of the markup or control characters.

For example, if you have a convention that `|' delimits the
left-hand and right-hand part of some GUI elements, translators will
often not understand it without specific comments. It might be better
to have the translator translate the left-hand and right-hand part
separately.

Another example is the `argp' convention to use a single `\v'
(vertical tab) control character to delimit two sections inside a
string. This is flawed. Some translators may convert it to a simple
newline, some to blank lines. With some PO file editors it may not be
easy to even enter a vertical tab control character. So, you cannot be
sure that the translation will contain a `\v' character, at the
corresponding position. The solution is, again, to let the translator
translate two separate strings and combine at run-time the two
translated strings with the `\v' required by the convention.

HTML markup, however, is common enough that it's probably ok to use
in translatable strings. But please bear in mind that the GNU gettext
tools don't verify that the translations are well-formed HTML.

File: gettext.info, Node: Mark Keywords, Next: Marking, Prev: Preparing Strings, Up: Sources

4.4 How Marks Appear in Sources
===============================

All strings requiring translation should be marked in the C sources.
Marking is done in such a way that each translatable string appears to
be the sole argument of some function or preprocessor macro. There are
only a few such possible functions or macros meant for translation, and
their names are said to be marking keywords. The marking is attached
to strings themselves, rather than to what we do with them. This
approach has more uses. A blatant example is an error message produced
by formatting. The format string needs translation, as well as some
strings inserted through some `%s' specification in the format, while
the result from `sprintf' may have so many different instances that it
is impractical to list them all in some `error_string_out()' routine,
say.

This marking operation has two goals. The first goal of marking is
for triggering the retrieval of the translation, at run time. The
keyword is possibly resolved into a routine able to dynamically return
the proper translation, as far as possible or wanted, for the argument
string. Most localizable strings are found in executable positions,
that is, attached to variables or given as parameters to functions.
But this is not universal usage, and some translatable strings appear
in structured initializations. *Note Special cases::.

The second goal of the marking operation is to help `xgettext' at
properly extracting all translatable strings when it scans a set of
program sources and produces PO file templates.

The canonical keyword for marking translatable strings is `gettext',
it gave its name to the whole GNU `gettext' package. For packages
making only light use of the `gettext' keyword, macro or function, it
is easily used _as is_. However, for packages using the `gettext'
interface more heavily, it is usually more convenient to give the main
keyword a shorter, less obtrusive name. Indeed, the keyword might
appear on a lot of strings all over the package, and programmers
usually do not want nor need their program sources to remind them
forcefully, all the time, that they are internationalized. Further, a
long keyword has the disadvantage of using more horizontal space,
forcing more indentation work on sources for those trying to keep them
within 79 or 80 columns.

Many packages use `_' (a simple underline) as a keyword, and write
`_("Translatable string")' instead of `gettext ("Translatable
string")'. Further, the coding rule, from GNU standards, wanting that
there is a space between the keyword and the opening parenthesis is
relaxed, in practice, for this particular usage. So, the textual
overhead per translatable string is reduced to only three characters:
the underline and the two parentheses. However, even if GNU `gettext'
uses this convention internally, it does not offer it officially. The
real, genuine keyword is truly `gettext' indeed. It is fairly easy for
those wanting to use `_' instead of `gettext' to declare:

#include <libintl.h>
#define _(String) gettext (String)

instead of merely using `#include <libintl.h>'.

The marking keywords `gettext' and `_' take the translatable string
as sole argument. It is also possible to define marking functions that
take it at another argument position. It is even possible to make the
marked argument position depend on the total number of arguments of the
function call; this is useful in C++. All this is achieved using
`xgettext''s `--keyword' option.

Note also that long strings can be split across lines, into multiple
adjacent string tokens. Automatic string concatenation is performed at
compile time according to ISO C and ISO C++; `xgettext' also supports
this syntax.

Later on, the maintenance is relatively easy. If, as a programmer,
you add or modify a string, you will have to ask yourself if the new or
altered string requires translation, and include it within `_()' if you
think it should be translated. For example, `"%s"' is an example of
string _not_ requiring translation. But `"%s: %d"' _does_ require
translation, because in French, unlike in English, it's customary to
put a space before a colon.

File: gettext.info, Node: Marking, Next: c-format Flag, Prev: Mark Keywords, Up: Sources

4.5 Marking Translatable Strings
================================

In PO mode, one set of features is meant more for the programmer than
for the translator, and allows him to interactively mark which strings,
in a set of program sources, are translatable, and which are not. Even
if it is a fairly easy job for a programmer to find and mark such
strings by other means, using any editor of his choice, PO mode makes
this work more comfortable. Further, this gives translators who feel a
little like programmers, or programmers who feel a little like
translators, a tool letting them work at marking translatable strings
in the program sources, while simultaneously producing a set of
translation in some language, for the package being internationalized.

The set of program sources, targeted by the PO mode commands describe
here, should have an Emacs tags table constructed for your project,
prior to using these PO file commands. This is easy to do. In any
shell window, change the directory to the root of your project, then
execute a command resembling:

etags src/*.[hc] lib/*.[hc]

presuming here you want to process all `.h' and `.c' files from the
`src/' and `lib/' directories. This command will explore all said
files and create a `TAGS' file in your root directory, somewhat
summarizing the contents using a special file format Emacs can
understand.

For packages following the GNU coding standards, there is a make
goal `tags' or `TAGS' which constructs the tag files in all directories
and for all files containing source code.

Once your `TAGS' file is ready, the following commands assist the
programmer at marking translatable strings in his set of sources. But
these commands are necessarily driven from within a PO file window, and
it is likely that you do not even have such a PO file yet. This is not
a problem at all, as you may safely open a new, empty PO file, mainly
for using these commands. This empty PO file will slowly fill in while
you mark strings as translatable in your program sources.

`,'
Search through program sources for a string which looks like a
candidate for translation (`po-tags-search').

`M-,'
Mark the last string found with `_()' (`po-mark-translatable').

`M-.'
Mark the last string found with a keyword taken from a set of
possible keywords. This command with a prefix allows some
management of these keywords (`po-select-mark-and-mark').

The `,' (`po-tags-search') command searches for the next occurrence
of a string which looks like a possible candidate for translation, and
displays the program source in another Emacs window, positioned in such
a way that the string is near the top of this other window. If the
string is too big to fit whole in this window, it is positioned so only
its end is shown. In any case, the cursor is left in the PO file
window. If the shown string would be better presented differently in
different native languages, you may mark it using `M-,' or `M-.'.
Otherwise, you might rather ignore it and skip to the next string by
merely repeating the `,' command.

A string is a good candidate for translation if it contains a
sequence of three or more letters. A string containing at most two
letters in a row will be considered as a candidate if it has more
letters than non-letters. The command disregards strings containing no
letters, or isolated letters only. It also disregards strings within
comments, or strings already marked with some keyword PO mode knows
(see below).

If you have never told Emacs about some `TAGS' file to use, the
command will request that you specify one from the minibuffer, the
first time you use the command. You may later change your `TAGS' file
by using the regular Emacs command `M-x visit-tags-table', which will
ask you to name the precise `TAGS' file you want to use. *Note Tag
Tables: (emacs)Tags.

Each time you use the `,' command, the search resumes from where it
was left by the previous search, and goes through all program sources,
obeying the `TAGS' file, until all sources have been processed.
However, by giving a prefix argument to the command (`C-u ,'), you may
request that the search be restarted all over again from the first
program source; but in this case, strings that you recently marked as
translatable will be automatically skipped.

Using this `,' command does not prevent using of other regular Emacs
tags commands. For example, regular `tags-search' or
`tags-query-replace' commands may be used without disrupting the
independent `,' search sequence. However, as implemented, the
_initial_ `,' command (or the `,' command is used with a prefix) might
also reinitialize the regular Emacs tags searching to the first tags
file, this reinitialization might be considered spurious.

The `M-,' (`po-mark-translatable') command will mark the recently
found string with the `_' keyword. The `M-.'
(`po-select-mark-and-mark') command will request that you type one
keyword from the minibuffer and use that keyword for marking the
string. Both commands will automatically create a new PO file
untranslated entry for the string being marked, and make it the current
entry (making it easy for you to immediately proceed to its
translation, if you feel like doing it right away). It is possible
that the modifications made to the program source by `M-,' or `M-.'
render some source line longer than 80 columns, forcing you to break
and re-indent this line differently. You may use the `O' command from
PO mode, or any other window changing command from Emacs, to break out
into the program source window, and do any needed adjustments. You
will have to use some regular Emacs command to return the cursor to the
PO file window, if you want command `,' for the next string, say.

The `M-.' command has a few built-in speedups, so you do not have to
explicitly type all keywords all the time. The first such speedup is
that you are presented with a _preferred_ keyword, which you may accept
by merely typing `<RET>' at the prompt. The second speedup is that you
may type any non-ambiguous prefix of the keyword you really mean, and
the command will complete it automatically for you. This also means
that PO mode has to _know_ all your possible keywords, and that it will
not accept mistyped keywords.

If you reply `?' to the keyword request, the command gives a list of
all known keywords, from which you may choose. When the command is
prefixed by an argument (`C-u M-.'), it inhibits updating any program
source or PO file buffer, and does some simple keyword management
instead. In this case, the command asks for a keyword, written in
full, which becomes a new allowed keyword for later `M-.' commands.
Moreover, this new keyword automatically becomes the _preferred_
keyword for later commands. By typing an already known keyword in
response to `C-u M-.', one merely changes the _preferred_ keyword and
does nothing more.

All keywords known for `M-.' are recognized by the `,' command when
scanning for strings, and strings already marked by any of those known
keywords are automatically skipped. If many PO files are opened
simultaneously, each one has its own independent set of known keywords.
There is no provision in PO mode, currently, for deleting a known
keyword, you have to quit the file (maybe using `q') and reopen it
afresh. When a PO file is newly brought up in an Emacs window, only
`gettext' and `_' are known as keywords, and `gettext' is preferred for
the `M-.' command. In fact, this is not useful to prefer `_', as this
one is already built in the `M-,' command.

File: gettext.info, Node: c-format Flag, Next: Special cases, Prev: Marking, Up: Sources

4.6 Special Comments preceding Keywords
=======================================

In C programs strings are often used within calls of functions from
the `printf' family. The special thing about these format strings is
that they can contain format specifiers introduced with `%'. Assume we
have the code

printf (gettext ("String `%s' has %d characters\n"), s, strlen (s));

A possible German translation for the above string might be:

"%d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette `%s'"

A C programmer, even if he cannot speak German, will recognize that
there is something wrong here. The order of the two format specifiers
is changed but of course the arguments in the `printf' don't have.
This will most probably lead to problems because now the length of the
string is regarded as the address.

To prevent errors at runtime caused by translations the `msgfmt'
tool can check statically whether the arguments in the original and the
translation string match in type and number. If this is not the case
and the `-c' option has been passed to `msgfmt', `msgfmt' will give an
error and refuse to produce a MO file. Thus consequent use of `msgfmt
-c' will catch the error, so that it cannot cause cause problems at
runtime.

If the word order in the above German translation would be correct one
would have to write

"%2$d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette `%1$s'"

The routines in `msgfmt' know about this special notation.

Because not all strings in a program must be format strings it is not
useful for `msgfmt' to test all the strings in the `.po' file. This
might cause problems because the string might contain what looks like a
format specifier, but the string is not used in `printf'.

Therefore the `xgettext' adds a special tag to those messages it
thinks might be a format string. There is no absolute rule for this,
only a heuristic. In the `.po' file the entry is marked using the
`c-format' flag in the `#,' comment line (*note PO Files::).

The careful reader now might say that this again can cause problems.
The heuristic might guess it wrong. This is true and therefore
`xgettext' knows about a special kind of comment which lets the
programmer take over the decision. If in the same line as or the
immediately preceding line to the `gettext' keyword the `xgettext'
program finds a comment containing the words `xgettext:c-format', it
will mark the string in any case with the `c-format' flag. This kind
of comment should be used when `xgettext' does not recognize the string
as a format string but it really is one and it should be tested.
Please note that when the comment is in the same line as the `gettext'
keyword, it must be before the string to be translated.

This situation happens quite often. The `printf' function is often
called with strings which do not contain a format specifier. Of course
one would normally use `fputs' but it does happen. In this case
`xgettext' does not recognize this as a format string but what happens
if the translation introduces a valid format specifier? The `printf'
function will try to access one of the parameters but none exists
because the original code does not pass any parameters.

`xgettext' of course could make a wrong decision the other way
round, i.e. a string marked as a format string actually is not a format
string. In this case the `msgfmt' might give too many warnings and
would prevent translating the `.po' file. The method to prevent this
wrong decision is similar to the one used above, only the comment to
use must contain the string `xgettext:no-c-format'.

If a string is marked with `c-format' and this is not correct the
user can find out who is responsible for the decision. See *Note
xgettext Invocation:: to see how the `--debug' option can be used for
solving this problem.

File: gettext.info, Node: Special cases, Next: Bug Report Address, Prev: c-format Flag, Up: Sources

4.7 Special Cases of Translatable Strings
=========================================

The attentive reader might now point out that it is not always
possible to mark translatable string with `gettext' or something like
this. Consider the following case:

{
static const char *messages[] = {
"some very meaningful message",
"and another one"
};
const char *string;
...
string
= index > 1 ? "a default message" : messages[index];

fputs (string);
...
}

While it is no problem to mark the string `"a default message"' it
is not possible to mark the string initializers for `messages'. What
is to be done? We have to fulfill two tasks. First we have to mark the
strings so that the `xgettext' program (*note xgettext Invocation::)
can find them, and second we have to translate the string at runtime
before printing them.

The first task can be fulfilled by creating a new keyword, which
names a no-op. For the second we have to mark all access points to a
string from the array. So one solution can look like this:

#define gettext_noop(String) String

{
static const char *messages[] = {
gettext_noop ("some very meaningful message"),
gettext_noop ("and another one")
};
const char *string;
...
string
= index > 1 ? gettext ("a default message") : gettext (messages[index]);

fputs (string);
...
}

Please convince yourself that the string which is written by `fputs'
is translated in any case. How to get `xgettext' know the additional
keyword `gettext_noop' is explained in *Note xgettext Invocation::.

The above is of course not the only solution. You could also come
along with the following one:

#define gettext_noop(String) String

{
static const char *messages[] = {
gettext_noop ("some very meaningful message",
gettext_noop ("and another one")
};
const char *string;
...
string
= index > 1 ? gettext_noop ("a default message") : messages[index];

fputs (gettext (string));
...
}

But this has a drawback. The programmer has to take care that he
uses `gettext_noop' for the string `"a default message"'. A use of
`gettext' could have in rare cases unpredictable results.

One advantage is that you need not make control flow analysis to make
sure the output is really translated in any case. But this analysis is
generally not very difficult. If it should be in any situation you can
use this second method in this situation.

File: gettext.info, Node: Bug Report Address, Next: Names, Prev: Special cases, Up: Sources

4.8 Letting Users Report Translation Bugs
=========================================

Code sometimes has bugs, but translations sometimes have bugs too.
The users need to be able to report them. Reporting translation bugs
to the programmer or maintainer of a package is not very useful, since
the maintainer must never change a translation, except on behalf of the
translator. Hence the translation bugs must be reported to the
translators.

Here is a way to organize this so that the maintainer does not need
to forward translation bug reports, nor even keep a list of the
addresses of the translators or their translation teams.

Every program has a place where is shows the bug report address. For
GNU programs, it is the code which handles the "-help" option,
typically in a function called "usage". In this place, instruct the
translator to add her own bug reporting address. For example, if that
code has a statement

printf (_("Report bugs to <%s>.\n"), PACKAGE_BUGREPORT);

you can add some translator instructions like this:

/* TRANSLATORS: The placeholder indicates the bug-reporting address
for this package. Please add _another line_ saying
"Report translation bugs to <...>\n" with the address for translation
bugs (typically your translation team's web or email address). */
printf (_("Report bugs to <%s>.\n"), PACKAGE_BUGREPORT);

These will be extracted by `xgettext', leading to a .pot file that
contains this:

#. TRANSLATORS: The placeholder indicates the bug-reporting address
#. for this package. Please add _another line_ saying
#. "Report translation bugs to <...>\n" with the address for translation
#. bugs (typically your translation team's web or email address).
#: src/hello.c:178
#, c-format
msgid "Report bugs to <%s>.\n"
msgstr ""

File: gettext.info, Node: Names, Next: Libraries, Prev: Bug Report Address, Up: Sources

4.9 Marking Proper Names for Translation
========================================

Should names of persons, cities, locations etc. be marked for
translation or not? People who only know languages that can be written
with Latin letters (English, Spanish, French, German, etc.) are tempted
to say "no", because names usually do not change when transported
between these languages. However, in general when translating from one
script to another, names are translated too, usually phonetically or by
transliteration. For example, Russian or Greek names are converted to
the Latin alphabet when being translated to English, and English or
French names are converted to the Katakana script when being translated
to Japanese. This is necessary because the speakers of the target
language in general cannot read the script the name is originally
written in.

As a programmer, you should therefore make sure that names are marked
for translation, with a special comment telling the translators that it
is a proper name and how to pronounce it. Like this:

printf (_("Written by %s.\n"),
/* TRANSLATORS: This is a proper name. See the gettext
manual, section Names. Note this is actually a non-ASCII
name: The first name is (with Unicode escapes)
"Fran\u00e7ois" or (with HTML entities) "Fran&ccedil;ois".
Pronunciation is like "fraa-swa pee-nar". */
_("Francois Pinard"));

As a translator, you should use some care when translating names,
because it is frustrating if people see their names mutilated or
distorted. If your language uses the Latin script, all you need to do
is to reproduce the name as perfectly as you can within the usual
character set of your language. In this particular case, this means to
provide a translation containing the c-cedilla character. If your
language uses a different script and the people speaking it don't
usually read Latin words, it means transliteration; but you should
still give, in parentheses, the original writing of the name - for the
sake of the people that do read the Latin script. Here is an example,
using Greek as the target script:

#. This is a proper name. See the gettext
#. manual, section Names. Note this is actually a non-ASCII
#. name: The first name is (with Unicode escapes)
#. "Fran\u00e7ois" or (with HTML entities) "Fran&ccedil;ois".
#. Pronunciation is like "fraa-swa pee-nar".
msgid "Francois Pinard"
msgstr "\phi\rho\alpha\sigma\omicron\alpha \pi\iota\nu\alpha\rho"
" (Francois Pinard)"

Because translation of names is such a sensitive domain, it is a good
idea to test your translation before submitting it.

The translation project `http://sourceforge.net/projects/translation'
has set up a POT file and translation domain consisting of program
author names, with better facilities for the translator than those
presented here. Namely, there the original name is written directly in
Unicode (rather than with Unicode escapes or HTML entities), and the
pronunciation is denoted using the International Phonetic Alphabet (see
`http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet').

However, we don't recommend this approach for all POT files in all
packages, because this would force translators to use PO files in UTF-8
encoding, which is - in the current state of software (as of 2003) - a
major hassle for translators using GNU Emacs or XEmacs with po-mode.

File: gettext.info, Node: Libraries, Prev: Names, Up: Sources

4.10 Preparing Library Sources
==============================

When you are preparing a library, not a program, for the use of
`gettext', only a few details are different. Here we assume that the
library has a translation domain and a POT file of its own. (If it
uses the translation domain and POT file of the main program, then the
previous sections apply without changes.)

1. The library code doesn't call `setlocale (LC_ALL, "")'. It's the
responsibility of the main program to set the locale. The
library's documentation should mention this fact, so that
developers of programs using the library are aware of it.

2. The library code doesn't call `textdomain (PACKAGE)', because it
would interfere with the text domain set by the main program.

3. The initialization code for a program was

setlocale (LC_ALL, "");
bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
textdomain (PACKAGE);

For a library it is reduced to

bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);

If your library's API doesn't already have an initialization
function, you need to create one, containing at least the
`bindtextdomain' invocation. However, you usually don't need to
export and document this initialization function: It is sufficient
that all entry points of the library call the initialization
function if it hasn't been called before. The typical idiom used
to achieve this is a static boolean variable that indicates
whether the initialization function has been called. Like this:

static bool libfoo_initialized;

static void
libfoo_initialize (void)
{
bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
libfoo_initialized = true;
}

/* This function is part of the exported API. */
struct foo *
create_foo (...)
{
/* Must ensure the initialization is performed. */
if (!libfoo_initialized)
libfoo_initialize ();
...
}

/* This function is part of the exported API. The argument must be
non-NULL and have been created through create_foo(). */
int
foo_refcount (struct foo *argument)
{
/* No need to invoke the initialization function here, because
create_foo() must already have been called before. */
...
}

4. The usual declaration of the `_' macro in each source file was

#include <libintl.h>
#define _(String) gettext (String)

for a program. For a library, which has its own translation
domain, it reads like this:

#include <libintl.h>
#define _(String) dgettext (PACKAGE, String)

In other words, `dgettext' is used instead of `gettext'.
Similarly, the `dngettext' function should be used in place of the
`ngettext' function.

File: gettext.info, Node: Template, Next: Creating, Prev: Sources, Up: Top

5 Making the PO Template File
*****************************

After preparing the sources, the programmer creates a PO template
file. This section explains how to use `xgettext' for this purpose.

`xgettext' creates a file named `DOMAINNAME.po'. You should then
rename it to `DOMAINNAME.pot'. (Why doesn't `xgettext' create it under
the name `DOMAINNAME.pot' right away? The answer is: for historical
reasons. When `xgettext' was specified, the distinction between a PO
file and PO file template was fuzzy, and the suffix `.pot' wasn't in
use at that time.)

* Menu:

* xgettext Invocation:: Invoking the `xgettext' Program

File: gettext.info, Node: xgettext Invocation, Prev: Template, Up: Template

5.1 Invoking the `xgettext' Program
===================================

xgettext [OPTION] [INPUTFILE] ...

The `xgettext' program extracts translatable strings from given
input files.

5.1.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE ...'
Input files.

`-f FILE'
`--files-from=FILE'
Read the names of the input files from FILE instead of getting
them from the command line.

`-D DIRECTORY'
`--directory=DIRECTORY'
Add DIRECTORY to the list of directories. Source files are
searched relative to this list of directories. The resulting `.po'
file will be written relative to the current directory, though.

If INPUTFILE is `-', standard input is read.

5.1.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-d NAME'
`--default-domain=NAME'
Use `NAME.po' for output (instead of `messages.po').

`-o FILE'
`--output=FILE'
Write output to specified file (instead of `NAME.po' or
`messages.po').

`-p DIR'
`--output-dir=DIR'
Output files will be placed in directory DIR.

If the output FILE is `-' or `/dev/stdout', the output is written to
standard output.

5.1.3 Choice of input file language
-----------------------------------

`-L NAME'
`--language=NAME'
Specifies the language of the input files. The supported languages
are `C', `C++', `ObjectiveC', `PO', `Python', `Lisp', `EmacsLisp',
`librep', `Scheme', `Smalltalk', `Java', `JavaProperties', `C#',
`awk', `YCP', `Tcl', `Perl', `PHP', `GCC-source', `NXStringTable',
`RST', `Glade'.

`-C'
`--c++'
This is a shorthand for `--language=C++'.

By default the language is guessed depending on the input file name
extension.

5.1.4 Input file interpretation
-------------------------------

`--from-code=NAME'
Specifies the encoding of the input files. This option is needed
only if some untranslated message strings or their corresponding
comments contain non-ASCII characters. Note that Tcl and Glade
input files are always assumed to be in UTF-8, regardless of this
option.

By default the input files are assumed to be in ASCII.

5.1.5 Operation mode
--------------------

`-j'
`--join-existing'
Join messages with existing file.

`-x FILE'
`--exclude-file=FILE'
Entries from FILE are not extracted. FILE should be a PO or POT
file.

`-c [TAG]'
`--add-comments[=TAG]'
Place comment block with TAG (or those preceding keyword lines) in
output file.

5.1.6 Language specific options
-------------------------------

`-a'
`--extract-all'
Extract all strings.

This option has an effect with most languages, namely C, C++,
ObjectiveC, Shell, Python, Lisp, EmacsLisp, librep, Java, C#, awk,
Tcl, Perl, PHP, GCC-source, Glade.

`-k KEYWORDSPEC'
`--keyword[=KEYWORDSPEC]'
Additional keyword to be looked for (without KEYWORDSPEC means not
to use default keywords).

If KEYWORDSPEC is a C identifier ID, `xgettext' looks for strings
in the first argument of each call to the function or macro ID.
If KEYWORDSPEC is of the form `ID:ARGNUM', `xgettext' looks for
strings in the ARGNUMth argument of the call. If KEYWORDSPEC is
of the form `ID:ARGNUM1,ARGNUM2', `xgettext' looks for strings in
the ARGNUM1st argument and in the ARGNUM2nd argument of the call,
and treats them as singular/plural variants for a message with
plural handling. Also, if KEYWORDSPEC is of the form
`ID:CONTEXTARGNUMc,ARGNUM' or `ID:ARGNUM,CONTEXTARGNUMc',
`xgettext' treats strings in the CONTEXTARGNUMth argument as a
context specifier. And, as a special-purpose support for GNOME,
if KEYWORDSPEC is of the form `ID:ARGNUMg', `xgettext' recognizes
the ARGNUMth argument as a string with context, using the GNOME
`glib' syntax `"msgctxt|msgid"'.
Furthermore, if KEYWORDSPEC is of the form `ID:...,TOTALNUMARGSt',
`xgettext' recognizes this argument specification only if the
number of actual arguments is equal to TOTALNUMARGS. This is
useful for disambiguating overloaded function calls in C++.
Finally, if KEYWORDSPEC is of the form `ID:ARGNUM...,"XCOMMENT"',
`xgettext', when extracting a message from the specified argument
strings, adds an extracted comment XCOMMENT to the message. Note
that when used through a normal shell command line, the
double-quotes around the XCOMMENT need to be escaped.

This option has an effect with most languages, namely C, C++,
ObjectiveC, Shell, Python, Lisp, EmacsLisp, librep, Java, C#, awk,
Tcl, Perl, PHP, GCC-source, Glade.

The default keyword specifications, which are always looked for if
not explicitly disabled, are language dependent. They are:

* For C, C++, and GCC-source: `gettext', `dgettext:2',
`dcgettext:2', `ngettext:1,2', `dngettext:2,3',
`dcngettext:2,3', `gettext_noop', and `pgettext:1c,2',
`dpgettext:2c,3', `dcpgettext:2c,3', `npgettext:1c,2,3',
`dnpgettext:2c,3,4', `dcnpgettext:2c,3,4'.

* For Objective C: Like for C, and also `NSLocalizedString',
`_', `NSLocalizedStaticString', `__'.

* For Shell scripts: `gettext', `ngettext:1,2', `eval_gettext',
`eval_ngettext:1,2'.

* For Python: `gettext', `ugettext', `dgettext:2',
`ngettext:1,2', `ungettext:1,2', `dngettext:2,3', `_'.

* For Lisp: `gettext', `ngettext:1,2', `gettext-noop'.

* For EmacsLisp: `_'.

* For librep: `_'.

* For Scheme: `gettext', `ngettext:1,2', `gettext-noop'.

* For Java: `GettextResource.gettext:2',
`GettextResource.ngettext:2,3',
`GettextResource.pgettext:2c,3',
`GettextResource.npgettext:2c,3,4', `gettext', `ngettext:1,2',
`pgettext:1c,2', `npgettext:1c,2,3', `getString'.

* For C#: `GetString', `GetPluralString:1,2',
`GetParticularString:1c,2',
`GetParticularPluralString:1c,2,3'.

* For awk: `dcgettext', `dcngettext:1,2'.

* For Tcl: `::msgcat::mc'.

* For Perl: `gettext', `%gettext', `$gettext', `dgettext:2',
`dcgettext:2', `ngettext:1,2', `dngettext:2,3',
`dcngettext:2,3', `gettext_noop'.

* For PHP: `_', `gettext', `dgettext:2', `dcgettext:2',
`ngettext:1,2', `dngettext:2,3', `dcngettext:2,3'.

* For Glade 1: `label', `title', `text', `format', `copyright',
`comments', `preview_text', `tooltip'.

To disable the default keyword specifications, the option `-k' or
`--keyword' or `--keyword=', without a KEYWORDSPEC, can be used.

`--flag=WORD:ARG:FLAG'
Specifies additional flags for strings occurring as part of the
ARGth argument of the function WORD. The possible flags are the
possible format string indicators, such as `c-format', and their
negations, such as `no-c-format', possibly prefixed with `pass-'.
The meaning of `--flag=FUNCTION:ARG:LANG-format' is that in
language LANG, the specified FUNCTION expects as ARGth argument a
format string. (For those of you familiar with GCC function
attributes, `--flag=FUNCTION:ARG:c-format' is roughly equivalent
to the declaration `__attribute__ ((__format__ (__printf__, ARG,
...)))' attached to FUNCTION in a C source file.) For example, if
you use the `error' function from GNU libc, you can specify its
behaviour through `--flag=error:3:c-format'. The effect of this
specification is that `xgettext' will mark as format strings all
`gettext' invocations that occur as ARGth argument of FUNCTION.
This is useful when such strings contain no format string
directives: together with the checks done by `msgfmt -c' it will
ensure that translators cannot accidentally use format string
directives that would lead to a crash at runtime.
The meaning of `--flag=FUNCTION:ARG:pass-LANG-format' is that in
language LANG, if the FUNCTION call occurs in a position that must
yield a format string, then its ARGth argument must yield a format
string of the same type as well. (If you know GCC function
attributes, the `--flag=FUNCTION:ARG:pass-c-format' option is
roughly equivalent to the declaration `__attribute__
((__format_arg__ (ARG)))' attached to FUNCTION in a C source file.)
For example, if you use the `_' shortcut for the `gettext'
function, you should use `--flag=_:1:pass-c-format'. The effect
of this specification is that `xgettext' will propagate a format
string requirement for a `_("string")' call to its first argument,
the literal `"string"', and thus mark it as a format string. This
is useful when such strings contain no format string directives:
together with the checks done by `msgfmt -c' it will ensure that
translators cannot accidentally use format string directives that
would lead to a crash at runtime.
This option has an effect with most languages, namely C, C++,
ObjectiveC, Shell, Python, Lisp, EmacsLisp, librep, Scheme, Java,
C#, awk, YCP, Tcl, Perl, PHP, GCC-source.

`-T'
`--trigraphs'
Understand ANSI C trigraphs for input.
This option has an effect only with the languages C, C++,
ObjectiveC.

`--qt'
Recognize Qt format strings.
This option has an effect only with the language C++.

`--kde'
Recognize KDE 4 format strings.
This option has an effect only with the language C++.

`--boost'
Recognize Boost format strings.
This option has an effect only with the language C++.

`--debug'
Use the flags `c-format' and `possible-c-format' to show who was
responsible for marking a message as a format string. The latter
form is used if the `xgettext' program decided, the format form is
used if the programmer prescribed it.

By default only the `c-format' form is used. The translator should
not have to care about these details.

This implementation of `xgettext' is able to process a few awkward
cases, like strings in preprocessor macros, ANSI concatenation of
adjacent strings, and escaped end of lines for continued strings.

5.1.7 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if no message is defined.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines. Note that using this
option makes it harder for technically skilled translators to
understand each message's context.

`-n'
`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-w NUMBER'
`--width=NUMBER'
Set the output page width. Long strings in the output files will
be split across multiple lines in order to ensure that each line's
width (= number of screen columns) is less or equal to the given
NUMBER.

`--no-wrap'
Do not break long message lines. Message lines whose width
exceeds the output page width will not be split into several
lines. Only file reference lines which are wider than the output
page width will be split.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

`--omit-header'
Don't write header with `msgid ""' entry.

This is useful for testing purposes because it eliminates a source
of variance for generated `.gmo' files. With `--omit-header', two
invocations of `xgettext' on the same files with the same options
at different times are guaranteed to produce the same results.

Note that using this option will lead to an error if the resulting
file would not entirely be in ASCII.

`--copyright-holder=STRING'
Set the copyright holder in the output. STRING should be the
copyright holder of the surrounding package. (Note that the msgstr
strings, extracted from the package's sources, belong to the
copyright holder of the package.) Translators are expected to
transfer or disclaim the copyright for their translations, so that
package maintainers can distribute them without legal risk. If
STRING is empty, the output files are marked as being in the
public domain; in this case, the translators are expected to
disclaim their copyright, again so that package maintainers can
distribute them without legal risk.

The default value for STRING is the Free Software Foundation, Inc.,
simply because `xgettext' was first used in the GNU project.

`--foreign-user'
Omit FSF copyright in output. This option is equivalent to
`--copyright-holder='''. It can be useful for packages outside
the GNU project that want their translations to be in the public
domain.

`--package-name=PACKAGE'
Set the package name in the header of the output.

`--package-version=VERSION'
Set the package version in the header of the output. This option
has an effect only if the `--package-name' option is also used.

`--msgid-bugs-address=EMAIL@ADDRESS'
Set the reporting address for msgid bugs. This is the email
address or URL to which the translators shall report bugs in the
untranslated strings:

- Strings which are not entire sentences, see the maintainer
guidelines in *Note Preparing Strings::.

- Strings which use unclear terms or require additional context
to be understood.

- Strings which make invalid assumptions about notation of
date, time or money.

- Pluralisation problems.

- Incorrect English spelling.

- Incorrect formatting.

It can be your email address, or a mailing list address where
translators can write to without being subscribed, or the URL of a
web page through which the translators can contact you.

The default value is empty, which means that translators will be
clueless! Don't forget to specify this option.

`-m [STRING]'
`--msgstr-prefix[=STRING]'
Use STRING (or "" if not specified) as prefix for msgstr entries.

`-M [STRING]'
`--msgstr-suffix[=STRING]'
Use STRING (or "" if not specified) as suffix for msgstr entries.

5.1.8 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: Creating, Next: Updating, Prev: Template, Up: Top

6 Creating a New PO File
************************

When starting a new translation, the translator creates a file called
`LANG.po', as a copy of the `PACKAGE.pot' template file with
modifications in the initial comments (at the beginning of the file)
and in the header entry (the first entry, near the beginning of the
file).

The easiest way to do so is by use of the `msginit' program. For
example:

$ cd PACKAGE-VERSION
$ cd po
$ msginit

The alternative way is to do the copy and modifications by hand. To
do so, the translator copies `PACKAGE.pot' to `LANG.po'. Then she
modifies the initial comments and the header entry of this file.

* Menu:

* msginit Invocation:: Invoking the `msginit' Program
* Header Entry:: Filling in the Header Entry

File: gettext.info, Node: msginit Invocation, Next: Header Entry, Prev: Creating, Up: Creating

6.1 Invoking the `msginit' Program
==================================

msginit [OPTION]

The `msginit' program creates a new PO file, initializing the meta
information with values from the user's environment.

6.1.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`-i INPUTFILE'
`--input=INPUTFILE'
Input POT file.

If no INPUTFILE is given, the current directory is searched for the
POT file. If it is `-', standard input is read.

6.1.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified PO file.

If no output file is given, it depends on the `--locale' option or
the user's locale setting. If it is `-', the results are written to
standard output.

6.1.3 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

6.1.4 Output details
--------------------

`-l LL_CC'
`--locale=LL_CC'
Set target locale. LL should be a language code, and CC should be
a country code. The command `locale -a' can be used to output a
list of all installed locales. The default is the user's locale
setting.

`--no-translator'
Declares that the PO file will not have a human translator and is
instead automatically generated.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

6.1.5 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: Header Entry, Prev: msginit Invocation, Up: Creating

6.2 Filling in the Header Entry
===============================

The initial comments "SOME DESCRIPTIVE TITLE", "YEAR" and "FIRST
AUTHOR <EMAIL@ADDRESS>, YEAR" ought to be replaced by sensible
information. This can be done in any text editor; if Emacs is used and
it switched to PO mode automatically (because it has recognized the
file's suffix), you can disable it by typing `M-x fundamental-mode'.

Modifying the header entry can already be done using PO mode: in
Emacs, type `M-x po-mode RET' and then `RET' again to start editing the
entry. You should fill in the following fields.

Project-Id-Version
This is the name and version of the package. Fill it in if it has
not already been filled in by `xgettext'.

Report-Msgid-Bugs-To
This has already been filled in by `xgettext'. It contains an
email address or URL where you can report bugs in the untranslated
strings:

- Strings which are not entire sentences, see the maintainer
guidelines in *Note Preparing Strings::.

- Strings which use unclear terms or require additional context
to be understood.

- Strings which make invalid assumptions about notation of
date, time or money.

- Pluralisation problems.

- Incorrect English spelling.

- Incorrect formatting.

POT-Creation-Date
This has already been filled in by `xgettext'.

PO-Revision-Date
You don't need to fill this in. It will be filled by the PO file
editor when you save the file.

Last-Translator
Fill in your name and email address (without double quotes).

Language-Team
Fill in the English name of the language, and the email address or
homepage URL of the language team you are part of.

Before starting a translation, it is a good idea to get in touch
with your translation team, not only to make sure you don't do
duplicated work, but also to coordinate difficult linguistic
issues.

In the Free Translation Project, each translation team has its own
mailing list. The up-to-date list of teams can be found at the
Free Translation Project's homepage,
`http://translationproject.org/', in the "Teams" area.

Content-Type
Replace `CHARSET' with the character encoding used for your
language, in your locale, or UTF-8. This field is needed for
correct operation of the `msgmerge' and `msgfmt' programs, as well
as for users whose locale's character encoding differs from yours
(see *Note Charset conversion::).

You get the character encoding of your locale by running the shell
command `locale charmap'. If the result is `C' or
`ANSI_X3.4-1968', which is equivalent to `ASCII' (= `US-ASCII'),
it means that your locale is not correctly configured. In this
case, ask your translation team which charset to use. `ASCII' is
not usable for any language except Latin.

Because the PO files must be portable to operating systems with
less advanced internationalization facilities, the character
encodings that can be used are limited to those supported by both
GNU `libc' and GNU `libiconv'. These are: `ASCII', `ISO-8859-1',
`ISO-8859-2', `ISO-8859-3', `ISO-8859-4', `ISO-8859-5',
`ISO-8859-6', `ISO-8859-7', `ISO-8859-8', `ISO-8859-9',
`ISO-8859-13', `ISO-8859-14', `ISO-8859-15', `KOI8-R', `KOI8-U',
`KOI8-T', `CP850', `CP866', `CP874', `CP932', `CP949', `CP950',
`CP1250', `CP1251', `CP1252', `CP1253', `CP1254', `CP1255',
`CP1256', `CP1257', `GB2312', `EUC-JP', `EUC-KR', `EUC-TW',
`BIG5', `BIG5-HKSCS', `GBK', `GB18030', `SHIFT_JIS', `JOHAB',
`TIS-620', `VISCII', `GEORGIAN-PS', `UTF-8'.

In the GNU system, the following encodings are frequently used for
the corresponding languages.

* `ISO-8859-1' for Afrikaans, Albanian, Basque, Breton,
Catalan, Cornish, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Faroese,
Finnish, French, Galician, German, Greenlandic, Icelandic,
Indonesian, Irish, Italian, Malay, Manx, Norwegian, Occitan,
Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, Tagalog, Uzbek, Walloon,

* `ISO-8859-2' for Bosnian, Croatian, Czech, Hungarian, Polish,
Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian,

* `ISO-8859-3' for Maltese,

* `ISO-8859-5' for Macedonian, Serbian,

* `ISO-8859-6' for Arabic,

* `ISO-8859-7' for Greek,

* `ISO-8859-8' for Hebrew,

* `ISO-8859-9' for Turkish,

* `ISO-8859-13' for Latvian, Lithuanian, Maori,

* `ISO-8859-14' for Welsh,

* `ISO-8859-15' for Basque, Catalan, Dutch, English, Finnish,
French, Galician, German, Irish, Italian, Portuguese,
Spanish, Swedish, Walloon,

* `KOI8-R' for Russian,

* `KOI8-U' for Ukrainian,

* `KOI8-T' for Tajik,

* `CP1251' for Bulgarian, Byelorussian,

* `GB2312', `GBK', `GB18030' for simplified writing of Chinese,

* `BIG5', `BIG5-HKSCS' for traditional writing of Chinese,

* `EUC-JP' for Japanese,

* `EUC-KR' for Korean,

* `TIS-620' for Thai,

* `GEORGIAN-PS' for Georgian,

* `UTF-8' for any language, including those listed above.

When single quote characters or double quote characters are used in
translations for your language, and your locale's encoding is one
of the ISO-8859-* charsets, it is best if you create your PO files
in UTF-8 encoding, instead of your locale's encoding. This is
because in UTF-8 the real quote characters can be represented
(single quote characters: U+2018, U+2019, double quote characters:
U+201C, U+201D), whereas none of ISO-8859-* charsets has them all.
Users in UTF-8 locales will see the real quote characters,
whereas users in ISO-8859-* locales will see the vertical
apostrophe and the vertical double quote instead (because that's
what the character set conversion will transliterate them to).

To enter such quote characters under X11, you can change your
keyboard mapping using the `xmodmap' program. The X11 names of
the quote characters are "leftsinglequotemark",
"rightsinglequotemark", "leftdoublequotemark",
"rightdoublequotemark", "singlelowquotemark", "doublelowquotemark".

Note that only recent versions of GNU Emacs support the UTF-8
encoding: Emacs 20 with Mule-UCS, and Emacs 21. As of January
2001, XEmacs doesn't support the UTF-8 encoding.

The character encoding name can be written in either upper or
lower case. Usually upper case is preferred.

Content-Transfer-Encoding
Set this to `8bit'.

Plural-Forms
This field is optional. It is only needed if the PO file has
plural forms. You can find them by searching for the
`msgid_plural' keyword. The format of the plural forms field is
described in *Note Plural forms::.

File: gettext.info, Node: Updating, Next: Editing, Prev: Creating, Up: Top

7 Updating Existing PO Files
****************************

* Menu:

* msgmerge Invocation:: Invoking the `msgmerge' Program

File: gettext.info, Node: msgmerge Invocation, Prev: Updating, Up: Updating

7.1 Invoking the `msgmerge' Program
===================================

msgmerge [OPTION] DEF.po REF.pot

The `msgmerge' program merges two Uniforum style .po files together.
The DEF.po file is an existing PO file with translations which will be
taken over to the newly created file as long as they still match;
comments will be preserved, but extracted comments and file positions
will be discarded. The REF.pot file is the last created PO file with
up-to-date source references but old translations, or a PO Template file
(generally created by `xgettext'); any translations or comments in the
file will be discarded, however dot comments and file positions will be
preserved. Where an exact match cannot be found, fuzzy matching is
used to produce better results.

7.1.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`DEF.po'
Translations referring to old sources.

`REF.pot'
References to the new sources.

`-C FILE'
`--compendium=FILE'
Specify an additional library of message translations. *Note
Compendium::. This option may be specified more than once.

7.1.2 Operation mode
--------------------

`-U'
`--update'
Update DEF.po. Do nothing if DEF.po is already up to date.

7.1.3 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

7.1.4 Output file location in update mode
-----------------------------------------

The result is written back to DEF.po.

`--backup=CONTROL'
Make a backup of DEF.po

`--suffix=SUFFIX'
Override the usual backup suffix.

The version control method may be selected via the `--backup' option
or through the `VERSION_CONTROL' environment variable. Here are the
values:

`none'
`off'
Never make backups (even if `--backup' is given).

`numbered'
`t'
Make numbered backups.

`existing'
`nil'
Make numbered backups if numbered backups for this file already
exist, otherwise make simple backups.

`simple'
`never'
Always make simple backups.

The backup suffix is `~', unless set with `--suffix' or the
`SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX' environment variable.

7.1.5 Operation modifiers
-------------------------

`-m'
`--multi-domain'
Apply REF.pot to each of the domains in DEF.po.

`-N'
`--no-fuzzy-matching'
Do not use fuzzy matching when an exact match is not found. This
may speed up the operation considerably.

`--previous'
Keep the previous msgids of translated messages, marked with `#|',
when adding the fuzzy marker to such messages.

7.1.6 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input files are Java ResourceBundles in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input files are NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
files in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

7.1.7 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

7.1.8 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

`-v'
`--verbose'
Increase verbosity level.

`-q'
`--quiet'
`--silent'
Suppress progress indicators.

File: gettext.info, Node: Editing, Next: Manipulating, Prev: Updating, Up: Top

8 Editing PO Files
******************

* Menu:

* KBabel:: KDE's PO File Editor
* Gtranslator:: GNOME's PO File Editor
* PO Mode:: Emacs's PO File Editor
* Compendium:: Using Translation Compendia

File: gettext.info, Node: KBabel, Next: Gtranslator, Prev: Editing, Up: Editing

8.1 KDE's PO File Editor
========================

File: gettext.info, Node: Gtranslator, Next: PO Mode, Prev: KBabel, Up: Editing

8.2 GNOME's PO File Editor
==========================

File: gettext.info, Node: PO Mode, Next: Compendium, Prev: Gtranslator, Up: Editing

8.3 Emacs's PO File Editor
==========================

For those of you being the lucky users of Emacs, PO mode has been
specifically created for providing a cozy environment for editing or
modifying PO files. While editing a PO file, PO mode allows for the
easy browsing of auxiliary and compendium PO files, as well as for
following references into the set of C program sources from which PO
files have been derived. It has a few special features, among which
are the interactive marking of program strings as translatable, and the
validation of PO files with easy repositioning to PO file lines showing
errors.

For the beginning, besides main PO mode commands (*note Main PO
Commands::), you should know how to move between entries (*note Entry
Positioning::), and how to handle untranslated entries (*note
Untranslated Entries::).

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Installation, Next: Main PO Commands, Prev: PO Mode, Up: PO Mode

8.3.1 Completing GNU `gettext' Installation
-------------------------------------------

Once you have received, unpacked, configured and compiled the GNU
`gettext' distribution, the `make install' command puts in place the
programs `xgettext', `msgfmt', `gettext', and `msgmerge', as well as
their available message catalogs. To top off a comfortable
installation, you might also want to make the PO mode available to your
Emacs users.

During the installation of the PO mode, you might want to modify your
file `.emacs', once and for all, so it contains a few lines looking
like:

(setq auto-mode-alist
(cons '("\\.po\\'\\|\\.po\\." . po-mode) auto-mode-alist))
(autoload 'po-mode "po-mode" "Major mode for translators to edit PO files" t)

Later, whenever you edit some `.po' file, or any file having the
string `.po.' within its name, Emacs loads `po-mode.elc' (or
`po-mode.el') as needed, and automatically activates PO mode commands
for the associated buffer. The string _PO_ appears in the mode line
for any buffer for which PO mode is active. Many PO files may be
active at once in a single Emacs session.

If you are using Emacs version 20 or newer, and have already
installed the appropriate international fonts on your system, you may
also tell Emacs how to determine automatically the coding system of
every PO file. This will often (but not always) cause the necessary
fonts to be loaded and used for displaying the translations on your
Emacs screen. For this to happen, add the lines:

(modify-coding-system-alist 'file "\\.po\\'\\|\\.po\\."
'po-find-file-coding-system)
(autoload 'po-find-file-coding-system "po-mode")

to your `.emacs' file. If, with this, you still see boxes instead of
international characters, try a different font set (via Shift Mouse
button 1).

File: gettext.info, Node: Main PO Commands, Next: Entry Positioning, Prev: Installation, Up: PO Mode

8.3.2 Main PO mode Commands
---------------------------

After setting up Emacs with something similar to the lines in *Note
Installation::, PO mode is activated for a window when Emacs finds a PO
file in that window. This puts the window read-only and establishes a
po-mode-map, which is a genuine Emacs mode, in a way that is not derived
from text mode in any way. Functions found on `po-mode-hook', if any,
will be executed.

When PO mode is active in a window, the letters `PO' appear in the
mode line for that window. The mode line also displays how many
entries of each kind are held in the PO file. For example, the string
`132t+3f+10u+2o' would tell the translator that the PO mode contains
132 translated entries (*note Translated Entries::, 3 fuzzy entries
(*note Fuzzy Entries::), 10 untranslated entries (*note Untranslated
Entries::) and 2 obsolete entries (*note Obsolete Entries::).
Zero-coefficients items are not shown. So, in this example, if the
fuzzy entries were unfuzzied, the untranslated entries were translated
and the obsolete entries were deleted, the mode line would merely
display `145t' for the counters.

The main PO commands are those which do not fit into the other
categories of subsequent sections. These allow for quitting PO mode or
for managing windows in special ways.

`_'
Undo last modification to the PO file (`po-undo').

`Q'
Quit processing and save the PO file (`po-quit').

`q'
Quit processing, possibly after confirmation
(`po-confirm-and-quit').

`0'
Temporary leave the PO file window (`po-other-window').

`?'
`h'
Show help about PO mode (`po-help').

`='
Give some PO file statistics (`po-statistics').

`V'
Batch validate the format of the whole PO file (`po-validate').

The command `_' (`po-undo') interfaces to the Emacs _undo_ facility.
*Note Undoing Changes: (emacs)Undo. Each time `U' is typed,
modifications which the translator did to the PO file are undone a
little more. For the purpose of undoing, each PO mode command is
atomic. This is especially true for the `<RET>' command: the whole
edition made by using a single use of this command is undone at once,
even if the edition itself implied several actions. However, while in
the editing window, one can undo the edition work quite parsimoniously.

The commands `Q' (`po-quit') and `q' (`po-confirm-and-quit') are
used when the translator is done with the PO file. The former is a bit
less verbose than the latter. If the file has been modified, it is
saved to disk first. In both cases, and prior to all this, the
commands check if any untranslated messages remain in the PO file and,
if so, the translator is asked if she really wants to leave off working
with this PO file. This is the preferred way of getting rid of an
Emacs PO file buffer. Merely killing it through the usual command
`C-x k' (`kill-buffer') is not the tidiest way to proceed.

The command `0' (`po-other-window') is another, softer way, to leave
PO mode, temporarily. It just moves the cursor to some other Emacs
window, and pops one if necessary. For example, if the translator just
got PO mode to show some source context in some other, she might
discover some apparent bug in the program source that needs correction.
This command allows the translator to change sex, become a programmer,
and have the cursor right into the window containing the program she
(or rather _he_) wants to modify. By later getting the cursor back in
the PO file window, or by asking Emacs to edit this file once again, PO
mode is then recovered.

The command `h' (`po-help') displays a summary of all available PO
mode commands. The translator should then type any character to resume
normal PO mode operations. The command `?' has the same effect as `h'.

The command `=' (`po-statistics') computes the total number of
entries in the PO file, the ordinal of the current entry (counted from
1), the number of untranslated entries, the number of obsolete entries,
and displays all these numbers.

The command `V' (`po-validate') launches `msgfmt' in checking and
verbose mode over the current PO file. This command first offers to
save the current PO file on disk. The `msgfmt' tool, from GNU
`gettext', has the purpose of creating a MO file out of a PO file, and
PO mode uses the features of this program for checking the overall
format of a PO file, as well as all individual entries.

The program `msgfmt' runs asynchronously with Emacs, so the
translator regains control immediately while her PO file is being
studied. Error output is collected in the Emacs `*compilation*' buffer,
displayed in another window. The regular Emacs command `C-x`'
(`next-error'), as well as other usual compile commands, allow the
translator to reposition quickly to the offending parts of the PO file.
Once the cursor is on the line in error, the translator may decide on
any PO mode action which would help correcting the error.

File: gettext.info, Node: Entry Positioning, Next: Normalizing, Prev: Main PO Commands, Up: PO Mode

8.3.3 Entry Positioning
-----------------------

The cursor in a PO file window is almost always part of an entry.
The only exceptions are the special case when the cursor is after the
last entry in the file, or when the PO file is empty. The entry where
the cursor is found to be is said to be the current entry. Many PO
mode commands operate on the current entry, so moving the cursor does
more than allowing the translator to browse the PO file, this also
selects on which entry commands operate.

Some PO mode commands alter the position of the cursor in a
specialized way. A few of those special purpose positioning are
described here, the others are described in following sections (for a
complete list try `C-h m'):

`.'
Redisplay the current entry (`po-current-entry').

`n'
Select the entry after the current one (`po-next-entry').

`p'
Select the entry before the current one (`po-previous-entry').

`<'
Select the first entry in the PO file (`po-first-entry').

`>'
Select the last entry in the PO file (`po-last-entry').

`m'
Record the location of the current entry for later use
(`po-push-location').

`r'
Return to a previously saved entry location (`po-pop-location').

`x'
Exchange the current entry location with the previously saved one
(`po-exchange-location').

Any Emacs command able to reposition the cursor may be used to
select the current entry in PO mode, including commands which move by
characters, lines, paragraphs, screens or pages, and search commands.
However, there is a kind of standard way to display the current entry
in PO mode, which usual Emacs commands moving the cursor do not
especially try to enforce. The command `.' (`po-current-entry') has
the sole purpose of redisplaying the current entry properly, after the
current entry has been changed by means external to PO mode, or the
Emacs screen otherwise altered.

It is yet to be decided if PO mode helps the translator, or otherwise
irritates her, by forcing a rigid window disposition while she is doing
her work. We originally had quite precise ideas about how windows
should behave, but on the other hand, anyone used to Emacs is often
happy to keep full control. Maybe a fixed window disposition might be
offered as a PO mode option that the translator might activate or
deactivate at will, so it could be offered on an experimental basis.
If nobody feels a real need for using it, or a compulsion for writing
it, we should drop this whole idea. The incentive for doing it should
come from translators rather than programmers, as opinions from an
experienced translator are surely more worth to me than opinions from
programmers _thinking_ about how _others_ should do translation.

The commands `n' (`po-next-entry') and `p' (`po-previous-entry')
move the cursor the entry following, or preceding, the current one. If
`n' is given while the cursor is on the last entry of the PO file, or
if `p' is given while the cursor is on the first entry, no move is done.

The commands `<' (`po-first-entry') and `>' (`po-last-entry') move
the cursor to the first entry, or last entry, of the PO file. When the
cursor is located past the last entry in a PO file, most PO mode
commands will return an error saying `After last entry'. Moreover, the
commands `<' and `>' have the special property of being able to work
even when the cursor is not into some PO file entry, and one may use
them for nicely correcting this situation. But even these commands
will fail on a truly empty PO file. There are development plans for
the PO mode for it to interactively fill an empty PO file from sources.
*Note Marking::.

The translator may decide, before working at the translation of a
particular entry, that she needs to browse the remainder of the PO
file, maybe for finding the terminology or phraseology used in related
entries. She can of course use the standard Emacs idioms for saving
the current cursor location in some register, and use that register for
getting back, or else, use the location ring.

PO mode offers another approach, by which cursor locations may be
saved onto a special stack. The command `m' (`po-push-location')
merely adds the location of current entry to the stack, pushing the
already saved locations under the new one. The command `r'
(`po-pop-location') consumes the top stack element and repositions the
cursor to the entry associated with that top element. This position is
then lost, for the next `r' will move the cursor to the previously
saved location, and so on until no locations remain on the stack.

If the translator wants the position to be kept on the location
stack, maybe for taking a look at the entry associated with the top
element, then go elsewhere with the intent of getting back later, she
ought to use `m' immediately after `r'.

The command `x' (`po-exchange-location') simultaneously repositions
the cursor to the entry associated with the top element of the stack of
saved locations, and replaces that top element with the location of the
current entry before the move. Consequently, repeating the `x' command
toggles alternatively between two entries. For achieving this, the
translator will position the cursor on the first entry, use `m', then
position to the second entry, and merely use `x' for making the switch.

File: gettext.info, Node: Normalizing, Next: Translated Entries, Prev: Entry Positioning, Up: PO Mode

8.3.4 Normalizing Strings in Entries
------------------------------------

There are many different ways for encoding a particular string into a
PO file entry, because there are so many different ways to split and
quote multi-line strings, and even, to represent special characters by
backslashed escaped sequences. Some features of PO mode rely on the
ability for PO mode to scan an already existing PO file for a
particular string encoded into the `msgid' field of some entry. Even
if PO mode has internally all the built-in machinery for implementing
this recognition easily, doing it fast is technically difficult. To
facilitate a solution to this efficiency problem, we decided on a
canonical representation for strings.

A conventional representation of strings in a PO file is currently
under discussion, and PO mode experiments with a canonical
representation. Having both `xgettext' and PO mode converging towards
a uniform way of representing equivalent strings would be useful, as
the internal normalization needed by PO mode could be automatically
satisfied when using `xgettext' from GNU `gettext'. An explicit PO
mode normalization should then be only necessary for PO files imported
from elsewhere, or for when the convention itself evolves.

So, for achieving normalization of at least the strings of a given
PO file needing a canonical representation, the following PO mode
command is available:

`M-x po-normalize'
Tidy the whole PO file by making entries more uniform.

The special command `M-x po-normalize', which has no associated
keys, revises all entries, ensuring that strings of both original and
translated entries use uniform internal quoting in the PO file. It
also removes any crumb after the last entry. This command may be
useful for PO files freshly imported from elsewhere, or if we ever
improve on the canonical quoting format we use. This canonical format
is not only meant for getting cleaner PO files, but also for greatly
speeding up `msgid' string lookup for some other PO mode commands.

`M-x po-normalize' presently makes three passes over the entries.
The first implements heuristics for converting PO files for GNU
`gettext' 0.6 and earlier, in which `msgid' and `msgstr' fields were
using K&R style C string syntax for multi-line strings. These
heuristics may fail for comments not related to obsolete entries and
ending with a backslash; they also depend on subsequent passes for
finalizing the proper commenting of continued lines for obsolete
entries. This first pass might disappear once all oldish PO files
would have been adjusted. The second and third pass normalize all
`msgid' and `msgstr' strings respectively. They also clean out those
trailing backslashes used by XView's `msgfmt' for continued lines.

Having such an explicit normalizing command allows for importing PO
files from other sources, but also eases the evolution of the current
convention, evolution driven mostly by aesthetic concerns, as of now.
It is easy to make suggested adjustments at a later time, as the
normalizing command and eventually, other GNU `gettext' tools should
greatly automate conformance. A description of the canonical string
format is given below, for the particular benefit of those not having
Emacs handy, and who would nevertheless want to handcraft their PO
files in nice ways.

Right now, in PO mode, strings are single line or multi-line. A
string goes multi-line if and only if it has _embedded_ newlines, that
is, if it matches `[^\n]\n+[^\n]'. So, we would have:

msgstr "\n\nHello, world!\n\n\n"

but, replacing the space by a newline, this becomes:

msgstr ""
"\n"
"\n"
"Hello,\n"
"world!\n"
"\n"
"\n"

We are deliberately using a caricatural example, here, to make the
point clearer. Usually, multi-lines are not that bad looking. It is
probable that we will implement the following suggestion. We might
lump together all initial newlines into the empty string, and also all
newlines introducing empty lines (that is, for N > 1, the N-1'th last
newlines would go together on a separate string), so making the
previous example appear:

msgstr "\n\n"
"Hello,\n"
"world!\n"
"\n\n"

There are a few yet undecided little points about string
normalization, to be documented in this manual, once these questions
settle.

File: gettext.info, Node: Translated Entries, Next: Fuzzy Entries, Prev: Normalizing, Up: PO Mode

8.3.5 Translated Entries
------------------------

Each PO file entry for which the `msgstr' field has been filled with
a translation, and which is not marked as fuzzy (*note Fuzzy Entries::),
is said to be a "translated" entry. Only translated entries will later
be compiled by GNU `msgfmt' and become usable in programs. Other entry
types will be excluded; translation will not occur for them.

Some commands are more specifically related to translated entry
processing.

`t'
Find the next translated entry (`po-next-translated-entry').

`T'
Find the previous translated entry
(`po-previous-translated-entry').

The commands `t' (`po-next-translated-entry') and `T'
(`po-previous-translated-entry') move forwards or backwards, chasing
for an translated entry. If none is found, the search is extended and
wraps around in the PO file buffer.

Translated entries usually result from the translator having edited
in a translation for them, *Note Modifying Translations::. However, if
the variable `po-auto-fuzzy-on-edit' is not `nil', the entry having
received a new translation first becomes a fuzzy entry, which ought to
be later unfuzzied before becoming an official, genuine translated
entry. *Note Fuzzy Entries::.

File: gettext.info, Node: Fuzzy Entries, Next: Untranslated Entries, Prev: Translated Entries, Up: PO Mode

8.3.6 Fuzzy Entries
-------------------

Each PO file entry may have a set of "attributes", which are
qualities given a name and explicitly associated with the translation,
using a special system comment. One of these attributes has the name
`fuzzy', and entries having this attribute are said to have a fuzzy
translation. They are called fuzzy entries, for short.

Fuzzy entries, even if they account for translated entries for most
other purposes, usually call for revision by the translator. Those may
be produced by applying the program `msgmerge' to update an older
translated PO files according to a new PO template file, when this tool
hypothesises that some new `msgid' has been modified only slightly out
of an older one, and chooses to pair what it thinks to be the old
translation for the new modified entry. The slight alteration in the
original string (the `msgid' string) should often be reflected in the
translated string, and this requires the intervention of the
translator. For this reason, `msgmerge' might mark some entries as
being fuzzy.

Also, the translator may decide herself to mark an entry as fuzzy
for her own convenience, when she wants to remember that the entry has
to be later revisited. So, some commands are more specifically related
to fuzzy entry processing.

`z'
Find the next fuzzy entry (`po-next-fuzzy-entry').

`Z'
Find the previous fuzzy entry (`po-previous-fuzzy-entry').

`<TAB>'
Remove the fuzzy attribute of the current entry (`po-unfuzzy').

The commands `z' (`po-next-fuzzy-entry') and `Z'
(`po-previous-fuzzy-entry') move forwards or backwards, chasing for a
fuzzy entry. If none is found, the search is extended and wraps around
in the PO file buffer.

The command `<TAB>' (`po-unfuzzy') removes the fuzzy attribute
associated with an entry, usually leaving it translated. Further, if
the variable `po-auto-select-on-unfuzzy' has not the `nil' value, the
`<TAB>' command will automatically chase for another interesting entry
to work on. The initial value of `po-auto-select-on-unfuzzy' is `nil'.

The initial value of `po-auto-fuzzy-on-edit' is `nil'. However, if
the variable `po-auto-fuzzy-on-edit' is set to `t', any entry edited
through the `<RET>' command is marked fuzzy, as a way to ensure some
kind of double check, later. In this case, the usual paradigm is that
an entry becomes fuzzy (if not already) whenever the translator
modifies it. If she is satisfied with the translation, she then uses
`<TAB>' to pick another entry to work on, clearing the fuzzy attribute
on the same blow. If she is not satisfied yet, she merely uses `<SPC>'
to chase another entry, leaving the entry fuzzy.

The translator may also use the `<DEL>' command
(`po-fade-out-entry') over any translated entry to mark it as being
fuzzy, when she wants to easily leave a trace she wants to later return
working at this entry.

Also, when time comes to quit working on a PO file buffer with the
`q' command, the translator is asked for confirmation, if fuzzy string
still exists.

File: gettext.info, Node: Untranslated Entries, Next: Obsolete Entries, Prev: Fuzzy Entries, Up: PO Mode

8.3.7 Untranslated Entries
--------------------------

When `xgettext' originally creates a PO file, unless told otherwise,
it initializes the `msgid' field with the untranslated string, and
leaves the `msgstr' string to be empty. Such entries, having an empty
translation, are said to be "untranslated" entries. Later, when the
programmer slightly modifies some string right in the program, this
change is later reflected in the PO file by the appearance of a new
untranslated entry for the modified string.

The usual commands moving from entry to entry consider untranslated
entries on the same level as active entries. Untranslated entries are
easily recognizable by the fact they end with `msgstr ""'.

The work of the translator might be (quite naively) seen as the
process of seeking for an untranslated entry, editing a translation for
it, and repeating these actions until no untranslated entries remain.
Some commands are more specifically related to untranslated entry
processing.

`u'
Find the next untranslated entry (`po-next-untranslated-entry').

`U'
Find the previous untranslated entry
(`po-previous-untransted-entry').

`k'
Turn the current entry into an untranslated one (`po-kill-msgstr').

The commands `u' (`po-next-untranslated-entry') and `U'
(`po-previous-untransted-entry') move forwards or backwards, chasing
for an untranslated entry. If none is found, the search is extended
and wraps around in the PO file buffer.

An entry can be turned back into an untranslated entry by merely
emptying its translation, using the command `k' (`po-kill-msgstr').
*Note Modifying Translations::.

Also, when time comes to quit working on a PO file buffer with the
`q' command, the translator is asked for confirmation, if some
untranslated string still exists.

File: gettext.info, Node: Obsolete Entries, Next: Modifying Translations, Prev: Untranslated Entries, Up: PO Mode

8.3.8 Obsolete Entries
----------------------

By "obsolete" PO file entries, we mean those entries which are
commented out, usually by `msgmerge' when it found that the translation
is not needed anymore by the package being localized.

The usual commands moving from entry to entry consider obsolete
entries on the same level as active entries. Obsolete entries are
easily recognizable by the fact that all their lines start with `#',
even those lines containing `msgid' or `msgstr'.

Commands exist for emptying the translation or reinitializing it to
the original untranslated string. Commands interfacing with the kill
ring may force some previously saved text into the translation. The
user may interactively edit the translation. All these commands may
apply to obsolete entries, carefully leaving the entry obsolete after
the fact.

Moreover, some commands are more specifically related to obsolete
entry processing.

`o'
Find the next obsolete entry (`po-next-obsolete-entry').

`O'
Find the previous obsolete entry (`po-previous-obsolete-entry').

`<DEL>'
Make an active entry obsolete, or zap out an obsolete entry
(`po-fade-out-entry').

The commands `o' (`po-next-obsolete-entry') and `O'
(`po-previous-obsolete-entry') move forwards or backwards, chasing for
an obsolete entry. If none is found, the search is extended and wraps
around in the PO file buffer.

PO mode does not provide ways for un-commenting an obsolete entry
and making it active, because this would reintroduce an original
untranslated string which does not correspond to any marked string in
the program sources. This goes with the philosophy of never
introducing useless `msgid' values.

However, it is possible to comment out an active entry, so making it
obsolete. GNU `gettext' utilities will later react to the
disappearance of a translation by using the untranslated string. The
command `<DEL>' (`po-fade-out-entry') pushes the current entry a little
further towards annihilation. If the entry is active (it is a
translated entry), then it is first made fuzzy. If it is already fuzzy,
then the entry is merely commented out, with confirmation. If the entry
is already obsolete, then it is completely deleted from the PO file.
It is easy to recycle the translation so deleted into some other PO file
entry, usually one which is untranslated. *Note Modifying
Translations::.

Here is a quite interesting problem to solve for later development of
PO mode, for those nights you are not sleepy. The idea would be that
PO mode might become bright enough, one of these days, to make good
guesses at retrieving the most probable candidate, among all obsolete
entries, for initializing the translation of a newly appeared string.
I think it might be a quite hard problem to do this algorithmically, as
we have to develop good and efficient measures of string similarity.
Right now, PO mode completely lets the decision to the translator, when
the time comes to find the adequate obsolete translation, it merely
tries to provide handy tools for helping her to do so.

File: gettext.info, Node: Modifying Translations, Next: Modifying Comments, Prev: Obsolete Entries, Up: PO Mode

8.3.9 Modifying Translations
----------------------------

PO mode prevents direct modification of the PO file, by the usual
means Emacs gives for altering a buffer's contents. By doing so, it
pretends helping the translator to avoid little clerical errors about
the overall file format, or the proper quoting of strings, as those
errors would be easily made. Other kinds of errors are still possible,
but some may be caught and diagnosed by the batch validation process,
which the translator may always trigger by the `V' command. For all
other errors, the translator has to rely on her own judgment, and also
on the linguistic reports submitted to her by the users of the
translated package, having the same mother tongue.

When the time comes to create a translation, correct an error
diagnosed mechanically or reported by a user, the translators have to
resort to using the following commands for modifying the translations.

`<RET>'
Interactively edit the translation (`po-edit-msgstr').

`<LFD>'
`C-j'
Reinitialize the translation with the original, untranslated string
(`po-msgid-to-msgstr').

`k'
Save the translation on the kill ring, and delete it
(`po-kill-msgstr').

`w'
Save the translation on the kill ring, without deleting it
(`po-kill-ring-save-msgstr').

`y'
Replace the translation, taking the new from the kill ring
(`po-yank-msgstr').

The command `<RET>' (`po-edit-msgstr') opens a new Emacs window
meant to edit in a new translation, or to modify an already existing
translation. The new window contains a copy of the translation taken
from the current PO file entry, all ready for edition, expunged of all
quoting marks, fully modifiable and with the complete extent of Emacs
modifying commands. When the translator is done with her
modifications, she may use `C-c C-c' to close the subedit window with
the automatically requoted results, or `C-c C-k' to abort her
modifications. *Note Subedit::, for more information.

The command `<LFD>' (`po-msgid-to-msgstr') initializes, or
reinitializes the translation with the original string. This command is
normally used when the translator wants to redo a fresh translation of
the original string, disregarding any previous work.

It is possible to arrange so, whenever editing an untranslated
entry, the `<LFD>' command be automatically executed. If you set
`po-auto-edit-with-msgid' to `t', the translation gets initialised with
the original string, in case none exists already. The default value
for `po-auto-edit-with-msgid' is `nil'.

In fact, whether it is best to start a translation with an empty
string, or rather with a copy of the original string, is a matter of
taste or habit. Sometimes, the source language and the target language
are so different that is simply best to start writing on an empty page.
At other times, the source and target languages are so close that it
would be a waste to retype a number of words already being written in
the original string. A translator may also like having the original
string right under her eyes, as she will progressively overwrite the
original text with the translation, even if this requires some extra
editing work to get rid of the original.

The command `k' (`po-kill-msgstr') merely empties the translation
string, so turning the entry into an untranslated one. But while doing
so, its previous contents is put apart in a special place, known as the
kill ring. The command `w' (`po-kill-ring-save-msgstr') has also the
effect of taking a copy of the translation onto the kill ring, but it
otherwise leaves the entry alone, and does _not_ remove the translation
from the entry. Both commands use exactly the Emacs kill ring, which
is shared between buffers, and which is well known already to Emacs
lovers.

The translator may use `k' or `w' many times in the course of her
work, as the kill ring may hold several saved translations. From the
kill ring, strings may later be reinserted in various Emacs buffers.
In particular, the kill ring may be used for moving translation strings
between different entries of a single PO file buffer, or if the
translator is handling many such buffers at once, even between PO files.

To facilitate exchanges with buffers which are not in PO mode, the
translation string put on the kill ring by the `k' command is fully
unquoted before being saved: external quotes are removed, multi-line
strings are concatenated, and backslash escaped sequences are turned
into their corresponding characters. In the special case of obsolete
entries, the translation is also uncommented prior to saving.

The command `y' (`po-yank-msgstr') completely replaces the
translation of the current entry by a string taken from the kill ring.
Following Emacs terminology, we then say that the replacement string is
"yanked" into the PO file buffer. *Note Yanking: (emacs)Yanking. The
first time `y' is used, the translation receives the value of the most
recent addition to the kill ring. If `y' is typed once again,
immediately, without intervening keystrokes, the translation just
inserted is taken away and replaced by the second most recent addition
to the kill ring. By repeating `y' many times in a row, the translator
may travel along the kill ring for saved strings, until she finds the
string she really wanted.

When a string is yanked into a PO file entry, it is fully and
automatically requoted for complying with the format PO files should
have. Further, if the entry is obsolete, PO mode then appropriately
push the inserted string inside comments. Once again, translators
should not burden themselves with quoting considerations besides, of
course, the necessity of the translated string itself respective to the
program using it.

Note that `k' or `w' are not the only commands pushing strings on
the kill ring, as almost any PO mode command replacing translation
strings (or the translator comments) automatically saves the old string
on the kill ring. The main exceptions to this general rule are the
yanking commands themselves.

To better illustrate the operation of killing and yanking, let's use
an actual example, taken from a common situation. When the programmer
slightly modifies some string right in the program, his change is later
reflected in the PO file by the appearance of a new untranslated entry
for the modified string, and the fact that the entry translating the
original or unmodified string becomes obsolete. In many cases, the
translator might spare herself some work by retrieving the unmodified
translation from the obsolete entry, then initializing the untranslated
entry `msgstr' field with this retrieved translation. Once this done,
the obsolete entry is not wanted anymore, and may be safely deleted.

When the translator finds an untranslated entry and suspects that a
slight variant of the translation exists, she immediately uses `m' to
mark the current entry location, then starts chasing obsolete entries
with `o', hoping to find some translation corresponding to the
unmodified string. Once found, she uses the `<DEL>' command for
deleting the obsolete entry, knowing that `<DEL>' also _kills_ the
translation, that is, pushes the translation on the kill ring. Then,
`r' returns to the initial untranslated entry, and `y' then _yanks_ the
saved translation right into the `msgstr' field. The translator is
then free to use `<RET>' for fine tuning the translation contents, and
maybe to later use `u', then `m' again, for going on with the next
untranslated string.

When some sequence of keys has to be typed over and over again, the
translator may find it useful to become better acquainted with the Emacs
capability of learning these sequences and playing them back under
request. *Note Keyboard Macros: (emacs)Keyboard Macros.

File: gettext.info, Node: Modifying Comments, Next: Subedit, Prev: Modifying Translations, Up: PO Mode

8.3.10 Modifying Comments
-------------------------

Any translation work done seriously will raise many linguistic
difficulties, for which decisions have to be made, and the choices
further documented. These documents may be saved within the PO file in
form of translator comments, which the translator is free to create,
delete, or modify at will. These comments may be useful to herself
when she returns to this PO file after a while.

Comments not having whitespace after the initial `#', for example,
those beginning with `#.' or `#:', are _not_ translator comments, they
are exclusively created by other `gettext' tools. So, the commands
below will never alter such system added comments, they are not meant
for the translator to modify. *Note PO Files::.

The following commands are somewhat similar to those modifying
translations, so the general indications given for those apply here.
*Note Modifying Translations::.

`#'
Interactively edit the translator comments (`po-edit-comment').

`K'
Save the translator comments on the kill ring, and delete it
(`po-kill-comment').

`W'
Save the translator comments on the kill ring, without deleting it
(`po-kill-ring-save-comment').

`Y'
Replace the translator comments, taking the new from the kill ring
(`po-yank-comment').

These commands parallel PO mode commands for modifying the
translation strings, and behave much the same way as they do, except
that they handle this part of PO file comments meant for translator
usage, rather than the translation strings. So, if the descriptions
given below are slightly succinct, it is because the full details have
already been given. *Note Modifying Translations::.

The command `#' (`po-edit-comment') opens a new Emacs window
containing a copy of the translator comments on the current PO file
entry. If there are no such comments, PO mode understands that the
translator wants to add a comment to the entry, and she is presented
with an empty screen. Comment marks (`#') and the space following them
are automatically removed before edition, and reinstated after. For
translator comments pertaining to obsolete entries, the uncommenting
and recommenting operations are done twice. Once in the editing
window, the keys `C-c C-c' allow the translator to tell she is finished
with editing the comment. *Note Subedit::, for further details.

Functions found on `po-subedit-mode-hook', if any, are executed after
the string has been inserted in the edit buffer.

The command `K' (`po-kill-comment') gets rid of all translator
comments, while saving those comments on the kill ring. The command
`W' (`po-kill-ring-save-comment') takes a copy of the translator
comments on the kill ring, but leaves them undisturbed in the current
entry. The command `Y' (`po-yank-comment') completely replaces the
translator comments by a string taken at the front of the kill ring.
When this command is immediately repeated, the comments just inserted
are withdrawn, and replaced by other strings taken along the kill ring.

On the kill ring, all strings have the same nature. There is no
distinction between _translation_ strings and _translator comments_
strings. So, for example, let's presume the translator has just
finished editing a translation, and wants to create a new translator
comment to document why the previous translation was not good, just to
remember what was the problem. Foreseeing that she will do that in her
documentation, the translator may want to quote the previous
translation in her translator comments. To do so, she may initialize
the translator comments with the previous translation, still at the
head of the kill ring. Because editing already pushed the previous
translation on the kill ring, she merely has to type `M-w' prior to
`#', and the previous translation will be right there, all ready for
being introduced by some explanatory text.

On the other hand, presume there are some translator comments already
and that the translator wants to add to those comments, instead of
wholly replacing them. Then, she should edit the comment right away
with `#'. Once inside the editing window, she can use the regular
Emacs commands `C-y' (`yank') and `M-y' (`yank-pop') to get the
previous translation where she likes.

File: gettext.info, Node: Subedit, Next: C Sources Context, Prev: Modifying Comments, Up: PO Mode

8.3.11 Details of Sub Edition
-----------------------------

The PO subedit minor mode has a few peculiarities worth being
described in fuller detail. It installs a few commands over the usual
editing set of Emacs, which are described below.

`C-c C-c'
Complete edition (`po-subedit-exit').

`C-c C-k'
Abort edition (`po-subedit-abort').

`C-c C-a'
Consult auxiliary PO files (`po-subedit-cycle-auxiliary').

The window's contents represents a translation for a given message,
or a translator comment. The translator may modify this window to her
heart's content. Once this is done, the command `C-c C-c'
(`po-subedit-exit') may be used to return the edited translation into
the PO file, replacing the original translation, even if it moved out of
sight or if buffers were switched.

If the translator becomes unsatisfied with her translation or
comment, to the extent she prefers keeping what was existent prior to
the `<RET>' or `#' command, she may use the command `C-c C-k'
(`po-subedit-abort') to merely get rid of edition, while preserving the
original translation or comment. Another way would be for her to exit
normally with `C-c C-c', then type `U' once for undoing the whole
effect of last edition.

The command `C-c C-a' (`po-subedit-cycle-auxiliary') allows for
glancing through translations already achieved in other languages,
directly while editing the current translation. This may be quite
convenient when the translator is fluent at many languages, but of
course, only makes sense when such completed auxiliary PO files are
already available to her (*note Auxiliary::).

Functions found on `po-subedit-mode-hook', if any, are executed after
the string has been inserted in the edit buffer.

While editing her translation, the translator should pay attention
to not inserting unwanted `<RET>' (newline) characters at the end of
the translated string if those are not meant to be there, or to removing
such characters when they are required. Since these characters are not
visible in the editing buffer, they are easily introduced by mistake.
To help her, `<RET>' automatically puts the character `<' at the end of
the string being edited, but this `<' is not really part of the string.
On exiting the editing window with `C-c C-c', PO mode automatically
removes such `<' and all whitespace added after it. If the translator
adds characters after the terminating `<', it looses its delimiting
property and integrally becomes part of the string. If she removes the
delimiting `<', then the edited string is taken _as is_, with all
trailing newlines, even if invisible. Also, if the translated string
ought to end itself with a genuine `<', then the delimiting `<' may not
be removed; so the string should appear, in the editing window, as
ending with two `<' in a row.

When a translation (or a comment) is being edited, the translator
may move the cursor back into the PO file buffer and freely move to
other entries, browsing at will. If, with an edition pending, the
translator wanders in the PO file buffer, she may decide to start
modifying another entry. Each entry being edited has its own subedit
buffer. It is possible to simultaneously edit the translation _and_
the comment of a single entry, or to edit entries in different PO
files, all at once. Typing `<RET>' on a field already being edited
merely resumes that particular edit. Yet, the translator should better
be comfortable at handling many Emacs windows!

Pending subedits may be completed or aborted in any order, regardless
of how or when they were started. When many subedits are pending and
the translator asks for quitting the PO file (with the `q' command),
subedits are automatically resumed one at a time, so she may decide for
each of them.

File: gettext.info, Node: C Sources Context, Next: Auxiliary, Prev: Subedit, Up: PO Mode

8.3.12 C Sources Context
------------------------

PO mode is particularly powerful when used with PO files created
through GNU `gettext' utilities, as those utilities insert special
comments in the PO files they generate. Some of these special comments
relate the PO file entry to exactly where the untranslated string
appears in the program sources.

When the translator gets to an untranslated entry, she is fairly
often faced with an original string which is not as informative as it
normally should be, being succinct, cryptic, or otherwise ambiguous.
Before choosing how to translate the string, she needs to understand
better what the string really means and how tight the translation has
to be. Most of the time, when problems arise, the only way left to make
her judgment is looking at the true program sources from where this
string originated, searching for surrounding comments the programmer
might have put in there, and looking around for helping clues of _any_
kind.

Surely, when looking at program sources, the translator will receive
more help if she is a fluent programmer. However, even if she is not
versed in programming and feels a little lost in C code, the translator
should not be shy at taking a look, once in a while. It is most
probable that she will still be able to find some of the hints she
needs. She will learn quickly to not feel uncomfortable in program
code, paying more attention to programmer's comments, variable and
function names (if he dared choosing them well), and overall
organization, than to the program code itself.

The following commands are meant to help the translator at getting
program source context for a PO file entry.

`s'
Resume the display of a program source context, or cycle through
them (`po-cycle-source-reference').

`M-s'
Display of a program source context selected by menu
(`po-select-source-reference').

`S'
Add a directory to the search path for source files
(`po-consider-source-path').

`M-S'
Delete a directory from the search path for source files
(`po-ignore-source-path').

The commands `s' (`po-cycle-source-reference') and `M-s'
(`po-select-source-reference') both open another window displaying some
source program file, and already positioned in such a way that it shows
an actual use of the string to be translated. By doing so, the command
gives source program context for the string. But if the entry has no
source context references, or if all references are unresolved along
the search path for program sources, then the command diagnoses this as
an error.

Even if `s' (or `M-s') opens a new window, the cursor stays in the
PO file window. If the translator really wants to get into the program
source window, she ought to do it explicitly, maybe by using command
`O'.

When `s' is typed for the first time, or for a PO file entry which
is different of the last one used for getting source context, then the
command reacts by giving the first context available for this entry, if
any. If some context has already been recently displayed for the
current PO file entry, and the translator wandered off to do other
things, typing `s' again will merely resume, in another window, the
context last displayed. In particular, if the translator moved the
cursor away from the context in the source file, the command will bring
the cursor back to the context. By using `s' many times in a row, with
no other commands intervening, PO mode will cycle to the next available
contexts for this particular entry, getting back to the first context
once the last has been shown.

The command `M-s' behaves differently. Instead of cycling through
references, it lets the translator choose a particular reference among
many, and displays that reference. It is best used with completion, if
the translator types `<TAB>' immediately after `M-s', in response to
the question, she will be offered a menu of all possible references, as
a reminder of which are the acceptable answers. This command is useful
only where there are really many contexts available for a single string
to translate.

Program source files are usually found relative to where the PO file
stands. As a special provision, when this fails, the file is also
looked for, but relative to the directory immediately above it. Those
two cases take proper care of most PO files. However, it might happen
that a PO file has been moved, or is edited in a different place than
its normal location. When this happens, the translator should tell PO
mode in which directory normally sits the genuine PO file. Many such
directories may be specified, and all together, they constitute what is
called the "search path" for program sources. The command `S'
(`po-consider-source-path') is used to interactively enter a new
directory at the front of the search path, and the command `M-S'
(`po-ignore-source-path') is used to select, with completion, one of
the directories she does not want anymore on the search path.

File: gettext.info, Node: Auxiliary, Prev: C Sources Context, Up: PO Mode

8.3.13 Consulting Auxiliary PO Files
------------------------------------

PO mode is able to help the knowledgeable translator, being fluent in
many languages, at taking advantage of translations already achieved in
other languages she just happens to know. It provides these other
language translations as additional context for her own work. Moreover,
it has features to ease the production of translations for many
languages at once, for translators preferring to work in this way.

An "auxiliary" PO file is an existing PO file meant for the same
package the translator is working on, but targeted to a different mother
tongue language. Commands exist for declaring and handling auxiliary
PO files, and also for showing contexts for the entry under work.

Here are the auxiliary file commands available in PO mode.

`a'
Seek auxiliary files for another translation for the same entry
(`po-cycle-auxiliary').

`C-c C-a'
Switch to a particular auxiliary file (`po-select-auxiliary').

`A'
Declare this PO file as an auxiliary file
(`po-consider-as-auxiliary').

`M-A'
Remove this PO file from the list of auxiliary files
(`po-ignore-as-auxiliary').

Command `A' (`po-consider-as-auxiliary') adds the current PO file to
the list of auxiliary files, while command `M-A'
(`po-ignore-as-auxiliary' just removes it.

The command `a' (`po-cycle-auxiliary') seeks all auxiliary PO files,
round-robin, searching for a translated entry in some other language
having an `msgid' field identical as the one for the current entry.
The found PO file, if any, takes the place of the current PO file in
the display (its window gets on top). Before doing so, the current PO
file is also made into an auxiliary file, if not already. So, `a' in
this newly displayed PO file will seek another PO file, and so on, so
repeating `a' will eventually yield back the original PO file.

The command `C-c C-a' (`po-select-auxiliary') asks the translator
for her choice of a particular auxiliary file, with completion, and
then switches to that selected PO file. The command also checks if the
selected file has an `msgid' field identical as the one for the current
entry, and if yes, this entry becomes current. Otherwise, the cursor
of the selected file is left undisturbed.

For all this to work fully, auxiliary PO files will have to be
normalized, in that way that `msgid' fields should be written _exactly_
the same way. It is possible to write `msgid' fields in various ways
for representing the same string, different writing would break the
proper behaviour of the auxiliary file commands of PO mode. This is not
expected to be much a problem in practice, as most existing PO files
have their `msgid' entries written by the same GNU `gettext' tools.

However, PO files initially created by PO mode itself, while marking
strings in source files, are normalised differently. So are PO files
resulting of the `M-x normalize' command. Until these discrepancies
between PO mode and other GNU `gettext' tools get fully resolved, the
translator should stay aware of normalisation issues.

File: gettext.info, Node: Compendium, Prev: PO Mode, Up: Editing

8.4 Using Translation Compendia
===============================

A "compendium" is a special PO file containing a set of translations
recurring in many different packages. The translator can use gettext
tools to build a new compendium, to add entries to her compendium, and
to initialize untranslated entries, or to update already translated
entries, from translations kept in the compendium.

* Menu:

* Creating Compendia:: Merging translations for later use
* Using Compendia:: Using older translations if they fit

File: gettext.info, Node: Creating Compendia, Next: Using Compendia, Prev: Compendium, Up: Compendium

8.4.1 Creating Compendia
------------------------

Basically every PO file consisting of translated entries only can be
declared as a valid compendium. Often the translator wants to have
special compendia; let's consider two cases: `concatenating PO files'
and `extracting a message subset from a PO file'.

8.4.1.1 Concatenate PO Files
............................

To concatenate several valid PO files into one compendium file you
can use `msgcomm' or `msgcat' (the latter preferred):

msgcat -o compendium.po file1.po file2.po

By default, `msgcat' will accumulate divergent translations for the
same string. Those occurrences will be marked as `fuzzy' and highly
visible decorated; calling `msgcat' on `file1.po':

#: src/hello.c:200
#, c-format
msgid "Report bugs to <%s>.\n"
msgstr "Comunicar `bugs' a <%s>.\n"

and `file2.po':

#: src/bye.c:100
#, c-format
msgid "Report bugs to <%s>.\n"
msgstr "Comunicar \"bugs\" a <%s>.\n"

will result in:

#: src/hello.c:200 src/bye.c:100
#, fuzzy, c-format
msgid "Report bugs to <%s>.\n"
msgstr ""
"#-#-#-#-# file1.po #-#-#-#-#\n"
"Comunicar `bugs' a <%s>.\n"
"#-#-#-#-# file2.po #-#-#-#-#\n"
"Comunicar \"bugs\" a <%s>.\n"

The translator will have to resolve this "conflict" manually; she has
to decide whether the first or the second version is appropriate (or
provide a new translation), to delete the "marker lines", and finally
to remove the `fuzzy' mark.

If the translator knows in advance the first found translation of a
message is always the best translation she can make use to the
`--use-first' switch:

msgcat --use-first -o compendium.po file1.po file2.po

A good compendium file must not contain `fuzzy' or untranslated
entries. If input files are "dirty" you must preprocess the input
files or postprocess the result using `msgattrib --translated
--no-fuzzy'.

8.4.1.2 Extract a Message Subset from a PO File
...............................................

Nobody wants to translate the same messages again and again; thus you
may wish to have a compendium file containing `getopt.c' messages.

To extract a message subset (e.g., all `getopt.c' messages) from an
existing PO file into one compendium file you can use `msggrep':

msggrep --location src/getopt.c -o compendium.po file.po

File: gettext.info, Node: Using Compendia, Prev: Creating Compendia, Up: Compendium

8.4.2 Using Compendia
---------------------

You can use a compendium file to initialize a translation from
scratch or to update an already existing translation.

8.4.2.1 Initialize a New Translation File
.........................................

Since a PO file with translations does not exist the translator can
merely use `/dev/null' to fake the "old" translation file.

msgmerge --compendium compendium.po -o file.po /dev/null file.pot

8.4.2.2 Update an Existing Translation File
...........................................

Concatenate the compendium file(s) and the existing PO, merge the
result with the POT file and remove the obsolete entries (optional,
here done using `sed'):

msgcat --use-first -o update.po compendium1.po compendium2.po file.po
msgmerge update.po file.pot | msgattrib --no-obsolete > file.po

File: gettext.info, Node: Manipulating, Next: Binaries, Prev: Editing, Up: Top

9 Manipulating PO Files
***********************

Sometimes it is necessary to manipulate PO files in a way that is
better performed automatically than by hand. GNU `gettext' includes a
complete set of tools for this purpose.

When merging two packages into a single package, the resulting POT
file will be the concatenation of the two packages' POT files. Thus the
maintainer must concatenate the two existing package translations into
a single translation catalog, for each language. This is best performed
using `msgcat'. It is then the translators' duty to deal with any
possible conflicts that arose during the merge.

When a translator takes over the translation job from another
translator, but she uses a different character encoding in her locale,
she will convert the catalog to her character encoding. This is best
done through the `msgconv' program.

When a maintainer takes a source file with tagged messages from
another package, he should also take the existing translations for this
source file (and not let the translators do the same job twice). One
way to do this is through `msggrep', another is to create a POT file for
that source file and use `msgmerge'.

When a translator wants to adjust some translation catalog for a
special dialect or orthography -- for example, German as written in
Switzerland versus German as written in Germany -- she needs to apply
some text processing to every message in the catalog. The tool for
doing this is `msgfilter'.

Another use of `msgfilter' is to produce approximately the POT file
for which a given PO file was made. This can be done through a filter
command like `msgfilter sed -e d | sed -e '/^# /d''. Note that the
original POT file may have had different comments and different plural
message counts, that's why it's better to use the original POT file if
available.

When a translator wants to check her translations, for example
according to orthography rules or using a non-interactive spell
checker, she can do so using the `msgexec' program.

When third party tools create PO or POT files, sometimes duplicates
cannot be avoided. But the GNU `gettext' tools give an error when they
encounter duplicate msgids in the same file and in the same domain. To
merge duplicates, the `msguniq' program can be used.

`msgcomm' is a more general tool for keeping or throwing away
duplicates, occurring in different files.

`msgcmp' can be used to check whether a translation catalog is
completely translated.

`msgattrib' can be used to select and extract only the fuzzy or
untranslated messages of a translation catalog.

`msgen' is useful as a first step for preparing English translation
catalogs. It copies each message's msgid to its msgstr.

Finally, for those applications where all these various programs are
not sufficient, a library `libgettextpo' is provided that can be used to
write other specialized programs that process PO files.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: msgcat Invocation, Next: msgconv Invocation, Prev: Manipulating, Up: Manipulating

9.1 Invoking the `msgcat' Program
=================================

msgcat [OPTION] [INPUTFILE]...

The `msgcat' program concatenates and merges the specified PO files.
It finds messages which are common to two or more of the specified PO
files. By using the `--more-than' option, greater commonality may be
requested before messages are printed. Conversely, the `--less-than'
option may be used to specify less commonality before messages are
printed (i.e. `--less-than=2' will only print the unique messages).
Translations, comments and extract comments will be cumulated, except
that if `--use-first' is specified, they will be taken from the first
PO file to define them. File positions from all PO files will be
cumulated.

9.1.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE ...'
Input files.

`-f FILE'
`--files-from=FILE'
Read the names of the input files from FILE instead of getting
them from the command line.

If INPUTFILE is `-', standard input is read.

9.1.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.1.3 Message selection
-----------------------

`-< NUMBER'
`--less-than=NUMBER'
Print messages with less than NUMBER definitions, defaults to
infinite if not set.

`-> NUMBER'
`--more-than=NUMBER'
Print messages with more than NUMBER definitions, defaults to 0 if
not set.

`-u'
`--unique'
Shorthand for `--less-than=2'. Requests that only unique messages
be printed.

9.1.4 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input files are Java ResourceBundles in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input files are NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
files in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.1.5 Output details
--------------------

`-t'
`--to-code=NAME'
Specify encoding for output.

`--use-first'
Use first available translation for each message. Don't merge
several translations into one.

`--color'
`--color=WHEN'
Specify whether or when to use colors and other text attributes.
See *Note The --color option:: for details.

`--style=STYLE_FILE'
Specify the CSS style rule file to use for `--color'. See *Note
The --style option:: for details.

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`-n'
`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.1.6 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgconv Invocation, Next: msggrep Invocation, Prev: msgcat Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.2 Invoking the `msgconv' Program
==================================

msgconv [OPTION] [INPUTFILE]

The `msgconv' program converts a translation catalog to a different
character encoding.

9.2.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE'
Input PO file.

If no INPUTFILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

9.2.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.2.3 Conversion target
-----------------------

`-t'
`--to-code=NAME'
Specify encoding for output.

The default encoding is the current locale's encoding.

9.2.4 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.2.5 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.2.6 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msggrep Invocation, Next: msgfilter Invocation, Prev: msgconv Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.3 Invoking the `msggrep' Program
==================================

msggrep [OPTION] [INPUTFILE]

The `msggrep' program extracts all messages of a translation catalog
that match a given pattern or belong to some given source files.

9.3.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE'
Input PO file.

If no INPUTFILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

9.3.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.3.3 Message selection
-----------------------

[-N SOURCEFILE]... [-M DOMAINNAME]...
[-J MSGCTXT-PATTERN] [-K MSGID-PATTERN] [-T MSGSTR-PATTERN]
[-C COMMENT-PATTERN]

A message is selected if
* it comes from one of the specified source files,

* or if it comes from one of the specified domains,

* or if `-J' is given and its context (msgctxt) matches
MSGCTXT-PATTERN,

* or if `-K' is given and its key (msgid or msgid_plural) matches
MSGID-PATTERN,

* or if `-T' is given and its translation (msgstr) matches
MSGSTR-PATTERN,

* or if `-C' is given and the translator's comment matches
COMMENT-PATTERN.

When more than one selection criterion is specified, the set of
selected messages is the union of the selected messages of each
criterion.

MSGCTXT-PATTERN or MSGID-PATTERN or MSGSTR-PATTERN syntax:
[-E | -F] [-e PATTERN | -f FILE]...
PATTERNs are basic regular expressions by default, or extended
regular expressions if -E is given, or fixed strings if -F is given.

`-N SOURCEFILE'
`--location=SOURCEFILE'
Select messages extracted from SOURCEFILE. SOURCEFILE can be
either a literal file name or a wildcard pattern.

`-M DOMAINNAME'
`--domain=DOMAINNAME'
Select messages belonging to domain DOMAINNAME.

`-J'
`--msgctxt'
Start of patterns for the msgctxt.

`-K'
`--msgid'
Start of patterns for the msgid.

`-T'
`--msgstr'
Start of patterns for the msgstr.

`-C'
`--comment'
Start of patterns for the translator's comment.

`-X'
`--extracted-comment'
Start of patterns for the extracted comments.

`-E'
`--extended-regexp'
Specify that PATTERN is an extended regular expression.

`-F'
`--fixed-strings'
Specify that PATTERN is a set of newline-separated strings.

`-e PATTERN'
`--regexp=PATTERN'
Use PATTERN as a regular expression.

`-f FILE'
`--file=FILE'
Obtain PATTERN from FILE.

`-i'
`--ignore-case'
Ignore case distinctions.

`-v'
`--invert-match'
Output only the messages that do not match any selection
criterion, instead of the messages that match a selection
criterion.

9.3.4 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.3.5 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.3.6 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

9.3.7 Examples
--------------

To extract the messages that come from the source files
`gnulib-lib/error.c' and `gnulib-lib/getopt.c':

msggrep -N gnulib-lib/error.c -N gnulib-lib/getopt.c input.po

To extract the messages that contain the string "Please specify" in
the original string:

msggrep --msgid -F -e 'Please specify' input.po

To extract the messages that have a context specifier of either
"Menu>File" or "Menu>Edit" or a submenu of them:

msggrep --msgctxt -E -e '^Menu>(File|Edit)' input.po

To extract the messages whose translation contains one of the
strings in the file `wordlist.txt':

msggrep --msgstr -F -f wordlist.txt input.po

File: gettext.info, Node: msgfilter Invocation, Next: msguniq Invocation, Prev: msggrep Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.4 Invoking the `msgfilter' Program
====================================

msgfilter [OPTION] FILTER [FILTER-OPTION]

The `msgfilter' program applies a filter to all translations of a
translation catalog.

9.4.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`-i INPUTFILE'
`--input=INPUTFILE'
Input PO file.

If no INPUTFILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

9.4.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.4.3 The filter
----------------

The FILTER can be any program that reads a translation from standard
input and writes a modified translation to standard output. A
frequently used filter is `sed'. A few particular built-in filters are
also recognized.

Note: If the filter is not a built-in filter, you have to care about
encodings: It is your responsibility to ensure that the FILTER can cope
with input encoded in the translation catalog's encoding. If the
FILTER wants input in a particular encoding, you can in a first step
convert the translation catalog to that encoding using the `msgconv'
program, before invoking `msgfilter'. If the FILTER wants input in the
locale's encoding, but you want to avoid the locale's encoding, then
you can first convert the translation catalog to UTF-8 using the
`msgconv' program and then make `msgfilter' work in an UTF-8 locale, by
using the `LC_ALL' environment variable.

Note: Most translations in a translation catalog don't end with a
newline character. For this reason, it is important that the FILTER
recognizes its last input line even if it ends without a newline, and
that it doesn't add an undesired trailing newline at the end. The `sed'
program on some platforms is known to ignore the last line of input if
it is not terminated with a newline. You can use GNU `sed' instead; it
does not have this limitation.

9.4.4 Useful FILTER-OPTIONs when the FILTER is `sed'
----------------------------------------------------

`-e SCRIPT'
`--expression=SCRIPT'
Add SCRIPT to the commands to be executed.

`-f SCRIPTFILE'
`--file=SCRIPTFILE'
Add the contents of SCRIPTFILE to the commands to be executed.

`-n'
`--quiet'
`--silent'
Suppress automatic printing of pattern space.

9.4.5 Built-in FILTERs
----------------------

The filter `recode-sr-latin' is recognized as a built-in filter.
The command `recode-sr-latin' converts Serbian text, written in the
Cyrillic script, to the Latin script. The command `msgfilter
recode-sr-latin' applies this conversion to the translations of a PO
file. Thus, it can be used to convert an `sr.po' file to an
`sr@latin.po' file.

The use of built-in filters is not sensitive to the current locale's
encoding. Moreover, when used with a built-in filter, `msgfilter' can
automatically convert the message catalog to the UTF-8 encoding when
needed.

9.4.6 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.4.7 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--keep-header'
Keep the header entry, i.e. the message with `msgid ""',
unmodified, instead of filtering it. By default, the header entry
is subject to filtering like any other message.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.4.8 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

9.4.9 Examples
--------------

To convert German translations to Swiss orthography (in an UTF-8
locale):

msgconv -t UTF-8 de.po | msgfilter sed -e 's/ss/ss/g'

To convert Serbian translations in Cyrillic script to Latin script:

msgfilter recode-sr-latin sr.po

File: gettext.info, Node: msguniq Invocation, Next: msgcomm Invocation, Prev: msgfilter Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.5 Invoking the `msguniq' Program
==================================

msguniq [OPTION] [INPUTFILE]

The `msguniq' program unifies duplicate translations in a translation
catalog. It finds duplicate translations of the same message ID. Such
duplicates are invalid input for other programs like `msgfmt',
`msgmerge' or `msgcat'. By default, duplicates are merged together.
When using the `--repeated' option, only duplicates are output, and all
other messages are discarded. Comments and extracted comments will be
cumulated, except that if `--use-first' is specified, they will be
taken from the first translation. File positions will be cumulated.
When using the `--unique' option, duplicates are discarded.

9.5.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE'
Input PO file.

If no INPUTFILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

9.5.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.5.3 Message selection
-----------------------

`-d'
`--repeated'
Print only duplicates.

`-u'
`--unique'
Print only unique messages, discard duplicates.

9.5.4 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.5.5 Output details
--------------------

`-t'
`--to-code=NAME'
Specify encoding for output.

`--use-first'
Use first available translation for each message. Don't merge
several translations into one.

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`-n'
`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.5.6 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgcomm Invocation, Next: msgcmp Invocation, Prev: msguniq Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.6 Invoking the `msgcomm' Program
==================================

msgcomm [OPTION] [INPUTFILE]...

The `msgcomm' program finds messages which are common to two or more
of the specified PO files. By using the `--more-than' option, greater
commonality may be requested before messages are printed. Conversely,
the `--less-than' option may be used to specify less commonality before
messages are printed (i.e. `--less-than=2' will only print the unique
messages). Translations, comments and extract comments will be
preserved, but only from the first PO file to define them. File
positions from all PO files will be cumulated.

9.6.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE ...'
Input files.

`-f FILE'
`--files-from=FILE'
Read the names of the input files from FILE instead of getting
them from the command line.

If INPUTFILE is `-', standard input is read.

9.6.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.6.3 Message selection
-----------------------

`-< NUMBER'
`--less-than=NUMBER'
Print messages with less than NUMBER definitions, defaults to
infinite if not set.

`-> NUMBER'
`--more-than=NUMBER'
Print messages with more than NUMBER definitions, defaults to 1 if
not set.

`-u'
`--unique'
Shorthand for `--less-than=2'. Requests that only unique messages
be printed.

9.6.4 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input files are Java ResourceBundles in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input files are NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
files in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.6.5 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`-n'
`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

`--omit-header'
Don't write header with `msgid ""' entry.

9.6.6 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgcmp Invocation, Next: msgattrib Invocation, Prev: msgcomm Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.7 Invoking the `msgcmp' Program
=================================

msgcmp [OPTION] DEF.po REF.pot

The `msgcmp' program compares two Uniforum style .po files to check
that both contain the same set of msgid strings. The DEF.po file is an
existing PO file with the translations. The REF.pot file is the last
created PO file, or a PO Template file (generally created by
`xgettext'). This is useful for checking that you have translated each
and every message in your program. Where an exact match cannot be
found, fuzzy matching is used to produce better diagnostics.

9.7.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`DEF.po'
Translations.

`REF.pot'
References to the sources.

`-D DIRECTORY'
`--directory=DIRECTORY'
Add DIRECTORY to the list of directories. Source files are
searched relative to this list of directories.

9.7.2 Operation modifiers
-------------------------

`-m'
`--multi-domain'
Apply REF.pot to each of the domains in DEF.po.

`--use-fuzzy'
Consider fuzzy messages in the DEF.po file like translated
messages. Note that using this option is usually wrong, because
fuzzy messages are exactly those which have not been validated by
a human translator.

`--use-untranslated'
Consider untranslated messages in the DEF.po file like translated
messages. Note that using this option is usually wrong.

9.7.3 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input files are Java ResourceBundles in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input files are NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
files in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.7.4 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgattrib Invocation, Next: msgen Invocation, Prev: msgcmp Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.8 Invoking the `msgattrib' Program
====================================

msgattrib [OPTION] [INPUTFILE]

The `msgattrib' program filters the messages of a translation catalog
according to their attributes, and manipulates the attributes.

9.8.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE'
Input PO file.

If no INPUTFILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

9.8.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.8.3 Message selection
-----------------------

`--translated'
Keep translated messages, remove untranslated messages.

`--untranslated'
Keep untranslated messages, remove translated messages.

`--no-fuzzy'
Remove `fuzzy' marked messages.

`--only-fuzzy'
Keep `fuzzy' marked messages, remove all other messages.

`--no-obsolete'
Remove obsolete #~ messages.

`--only-obsolete'
Keep obsolete #~ messages, remove all other messages.

9.8.4 Attribute manipulation
----------------------------

Attributes are modified after the message selection/removal has been
performed. If the `--only-file' or `--ignore-file' option is
specified, the attribute modification is applied only to those messages
that are listed in the ONLY-FILE and not listed in the IGNORE-FILE.

`--set-fuzzy'
Set all messages `fuzzy'.

`--clear-fuzzy'
Set all messages non-`fuzzy'.

`--set-obsolete'
Set all messages obsolete.

`--clear-obsolete'
Set all messages non-obsolete.

`--clear-previous'
Remove the "previous msgid" (`#|') comments from all messages.

`--only-file=FILE'
Limit the attribute changes to entries that are listed in FILE.
FILE should be a PO or POT file.

`--ignore-file=FILE'
Limit the attribute changes to entries that are not listed in FILE.
FILE should be a PO or POT file.

`--fuzzy'
Synonym for `--only-fuzzy --clear-fuzzy': It keeps only the fuzzy
messages and removes their `fuzzy' mark.

`--obsolete'
Synonym for `--only-obsolete --clear-obsolete': It keeps only the
obsolete messages and makes them non-obsolete.

9.8.5 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.8.6 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`-n'
`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.8.7 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgen Invocation, Next: msgexec Invocation, Prev: msgattrib Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.9 Invoking the `msgen' Program
================================

msgen [OPTION] INPUTFILE

The `msgen' program creates an English translation catalog. The
input file is the last created English PO file, or a PO Template file
(generally created by xgettext). Untranslated entries are assigned a
translation that is identical to the msgid.

Note: `msginit --no-translator --locale=en' performs a very similar
task. The main difference is that `msginit' cares specially about the
header entry, whereas `msgen' doesn't.

9.9.1 Input file location
-------------------------

`INPUTFILE'
Input PO or POT file.

If INPUTFILE is `-', standard input is read.

9.9.2 Output file location
--------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

9.9.3 Input file syntax
-----------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.9.4 Output details
--------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--no-location'
Do not write `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines.

`--add-location'
Generate `#: FILENAME:LINE' lines (default).

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

`-F'
`--sort-by-file'
Sort output by file location.

9.9.5 Informative output
------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgexec Invocation, Next: Colorizing, Prev: msgen Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.10 Invoking the `msgexec' Program
===================================

msgexec [OPTION] COMMAND [COMMAND-OPTION]

The `msgexec' program applies a command to all translations of a
translation catalog. The COMMAND can be any program that reads a
translation from standard input. It is invoked once for each
translation. Its output becomes msgexec's output. `msgexec''s return
code is the maximum return code across all invocations.

A special builtin command called `0' outputs the translation,
followed by a null byte. The output of `msgexec 0' is suitable as
input for `xargs -0'.

During each COMMAND invocation, the environment variable
`MSGEXEC_MSGID' is bound to the message's msgid, and the environment
variable `MSGEXEC_LOCATION' is bound to the location in the PO file of
the message. If the message has a context, the environment variable
`MSGEXEC_MSGCTXT' is bound to the message's msgctxt, otherwise it is
unbound.

Note: It is your responsibility to ensure that the COMMAND can cope
with input encoded in the translation catalog's encoding. If the
COMMAND wants input in a particular encoding, you can in a first step
convert the translation catalog to that encoding using the `msgconv'
program, before invoking `msgexec'. If the COMMAND wants input in the
locale's encoding, but you want to avoid the locale's encoding, then
you can first convert the translation catalog to UTF-8 using the
`msgconv' program and then make `msgexec' work in an UTF-8 locale, by
using the `LC_ALL' environment variable.

9.10.1 Input file location
--------------------------

`-i INPUTFILE'
`--input=INPUTFILE'
Input PO file.

If no INPUTFILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

9.10.2 Input file syntax
------------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input file is a Java ResourceBundle in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input file is a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
file in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

9.10.3 Informative output
-------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

File: gettext.info, Node: Colorizing, Next: libgettextpo, Prev: msgexec Invocation, Up: Manipulating

9.11 Highlighting parts of PO files
===================================

Translators are usually only interested in seeing the untranslated
and fuzzy messages of a PO file. Also, when a message is set fuzzy
because the msgid changed, they want to see the differences between the
previous msgid and the current one (especially if the msgid is long and
only few words in it have changed). Finally, it's always welcome to
highlight the different sections of a message in a PO file (comments,
msgid, msgstr, etc.).

Such highlighting is possible through the `msgcat' options `--color'
and `--style'.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: The --color option, Next: The TERM variable, Up: Colorizing

9.11.1 The `--color' option
---------------------------

The `--color=WHEN' option specifies under which conditions colorized
output should be generated. The WHEN part can be one of the following:

`always'
`yes'
The output will be colorized.

`never'
`no'
The output will not be colorized.

`auto'
`tty'
The output will be colorized if the output device is a tty, i.e.
when the output goes directly to a text screen or terminal
emulator window.

`html'
The output will be colorized and be in HTML format.

`--color' is equivalent to `--color=yes'. The default is
`--color=auto'.

Thus, a command like `msgcat vi.po' will produce colorized output
when called by itself in a command window. Whereas in a pipe, such as
`msgcat vi.po | less -R', it will not produce colorized output. To get
colorized output in this situation nevertheless, use the command
`msgcat --color vi.po | less -R'.

The `--color=html' option will produce output that can be viewed in
a browser. This can be useful, for example, for Indic languages,
because the renderic of Indic scripts in browser is usually better than
in terminal emulators.

Note that the output produced with the `--color' option is _not_ a
valid PO file in itself. It contains additional terminal-specific
escape sequences or HTML tags. A PO file reader will give a syntax
error when confronted with such content. Except for the `--color=html'
case, you therefore normally don't need to save output produced with the
`--color' option in a file.

File: gettext.info, Node: The TERM variable, Next: The --style option, Prev: The --color option, Up: Colorizing

9.11.2 The environment variable `TERM'
--------------------------------------

The environment variable `TERM' contains a identifier for the text
window's capabilities. You can get a detailed list of these
cababilities by using the `infocmp' command, using `man 5 terminfo' as a
reference.

When producing text with embedded color directives, `msgcat' looks
at the `TERM' variable. Text windows today typically support at least
8 colors. Often, however, the text window supports 16 or more colors,
even though the `TERM' variable is set to a identifier denoting only 8
supported colors. It can be worth setting the `TERM' variable to a
different value in these cases:

`xterm'
`xterm' is in most cases built with support for 16 colors. It can
also be built with support for 88 or 256 colors (but not both).
You can try to set `TERM' to either `xterm-16color',
`xterm-88color', or `xterm-256color'.

`rxvt'
`rxvt' is often built with support for 16 colors. You can try to
set `TERM' to `rxvt-16color'.

`konsole'
`konsole' too is often built with support for 16 colors. You can
try to set `TERM' to `konsole-16color' or `xterm-16color'.

After setting `TERM', you can verify it by invoking `msgcat
--color=test' and seeing whether the output looks like a reasonable
color map.

File: gettext.info, Node: The --style option, Next: Style rules, Prev: The TERM variable, Up: Colorizing

9.11.3 The `--style' option
---------------------------

The `--style=STYLE_FILE' option specifies the style file to use when
colorizing. It has an effect only when the `--color' option is
effective.

If the `--style' option is not specified, the environment variable
`PO_STYLE' is considered. It is meant to point to the user's preferred
style for PO files.

The default style file is
`$prefix/share/gettext/styles/po-default.css', where `$prefix' is the
installation location.

A few style files are predefined:
`po-vim.css'
This style imitates the look used by vim 7.

`po-emacs-x.css'
This style imitates the look used by GNU Emacs 21 and 22 in an X11
window.

`po-emacs-xterm.css'
`po-emacs-xterm16.css'
`po-emacs-xterm256.css'
This style imitates the look used by GNU Emacs 22 in a terminal of
type `xterm' (8 colors) or `xterm-16color' (16 colors) or
`xterm-256color' (256 colors), respectively.

You can use these styles without specifying a directory. They are
actually located in `$prefix/share/gettext/styles/', where `$prefix' is
the installation location.

You can also design your own styles. This is described in the next
section.

File: gettext.info, Node: Style rules, Next: Customizing less, Prev: The --style option, Up: Colorizing

9.11.4 Style rules for PO files
-------------------------------

The same style file can be used for styling of a PO file, for
terminal output and for HTML output. It is written in CSS (Cascading
Style Sheet) syntax. See `http://www.w3.org/TR/css2/cover.html' for a
formal definition of CSS. Many HTML authoring tutorials also contain
explanations of CSS.

In the case of HTML output, the style file is embedded in the HTML
output. In the case of text output, the style file is interpreted by
the `msgcat' program. This means, in particular, that when `@import'
is used with relative file names, the file names are

- relative to the resulting HTML file, in the case of HTML output,

- relative to the style sheet containing the `@import', in the case
of text output. (Actually, `@import's are not yet supported in
this case, due to a limitation in `libcroco'.)

CSS rules are built up from selectors and declarations. The
declarations specify graphical properties; the selectors specify
specify when they apply.

In PO files, the following simple selectors (based on "CSS classes",
see the CSS2 spec, section 5.8.3) are supported.

* Selectors that apply to entire messages:

`.header'
This matches the header entry of a PO file.

`.translated'
This matches a translated message.

`.untranslated'
This matches an untranslated message (i.e. a message with
empty translation).

`.fuzzy'
This matches a fuzzy message (i.e. a message which has a
translation that needs review by the translator).

`.obsolete'
This matches an obsolete message (i.e. a message that was
translated but is not needed by the current POT file any
more).

* Selectors that apply to parts of a message in PO syntax. Recall
the general structure of a message in PO syntax:

WHITE-SPACE
# TRANSLATOR-COMMENTS
#. EXTRACTED-COMMENTS
#: REFERENCE...
#, FLAG...
#| msgid PREVIOUS-UNTRANSLATED-STRING
msgid UNTRANSLATED-STRING
msgstr TRANSLATED-STRING

`.comment'
This matches all comments (translator comments, extracted
comments, source file reference comments, flag comments,
previous message comments, as well as the entire obsolete
messages).

`.translator-comment'
This matches the translator comments.

`.extracted-comment'
This matches the extracted comments, i.e. the comments placed
by the programmer at the attention of the translator.

`.reference-comment'
This matches the source file reference comments (entire
lines).

`.reference'
This matches the individual source file references inside the
source file reference comment lines.

`.flag-comment'
This matches the flag comment lines (entire lines).

`.flag'
This matches the individual flags inside flag comment lines.

`.fuzzy-flag'
This matches the `fuzzy' flag inside flag comment lines.

`.previous-comment'
This matches the comments containing the previous
untranslated string (entire lines).

`.previous'
This matches the previous untranslated string including the
string delimiters, the associated keywords (`msgid' etc.) and
the spaces between them.

`.msgid'
This matches the untranslated string including the string
delimiters, the associated keywords (`msgid' etc.) and the
spaces between them.

`.msgstr'
This matches the translated string including the string
delimiters, the associated keywords (`msgstr' etc.) and the
spaces between them.

`.keyword'
This matches the keywords (`msgid', `msgstr', etc.).

`.string'
This matches strings, including the string delimiters (double
quotes).

* Selectors that apply to parts of strings:

`.text'
This matches the entire contents of a string (excluding the
string delimiters, i.e. the double quotes).

`.escape-sequence'
This matches an escape sequence (starting with a backslash).

`.format-directive'
This matches a format string directive (starting with a `%'
sign in the case of most programming languages, with a `{' in
the case of `java-format' and `csharp-format', with a `~' in
the case of `lisp-format' and `scheme-format', or with `$' in
the case of `sh-format').

`.invalid-format-directive'
This matches an invalid format string directive.

`.added'
In an untranslated string, this matches a part of the string
that was not present in the previous untranslated string.
(Not yet implemented in this release.)

`.changed'
In an untranslated string or in a previous untranslated
string, this matches a part of the string that is changed or
replaced. (Not yet implemented in this release.)

`.removed'
In a previous untranslated string, this matches a part of the
string that is not present in the current untranslated
string. (Not yet implemented in this release.)

These selectors can be combined to hierarchical selectors. For
example,

.msgstr .invalid-format-directive { color: red; }

will highlight the invalid format directives in the translated strings.

In text mode, pseudo-classes (CSS2 spec, section 5.11) and
pseudo-elements (CSS2 spec, section 5.12) are not supported.

The declarations in HTML mode are not limited; any graphical
attribute supported by the browsers can be used.

The declarations in text mode are limited to the following
properties. Other properties will be silently ignored.

`color' (CSS2 spec, section 14.1)
`background-color' (CSS2 spec, section 14.2.1)
These properties is supported. Colors will be adjusted to match
the terminal's capabilities. Note that many terminals support
only 8 colors.

`font-weight' (CSS2 spec, section 15.2.3)
This property is supported, but most terminals can only render two
different weights: `normal' and `bold'. Values >= 600 are
rendered as `bold'.

`font-style' (CSS2 spec, section 15.2.3)
This property is supported. The values `italic' and `oblique' are
rendered the same way.

`text-decoration' (CSS2 spec, section 16.3.1)
This property is supported, limited to the values `none' and
`underline'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Customizing less, Prev: Style rules, Up: Colorizing

9.11.5 Customizing `less' for viewing PO files
----------------------------------------------

The `less' program is a popular text file browser for use in a text
screen or terminal emulator. It also supports text with embedded escape
sequences for colors and text decorations.

You can use `less' to view a PO file like this (assuming an UTF-8
environment):

msgcat --to-code=UTF-8 --color xyz.po | less -R

You can simplify this to this simple command:

less xyz.po

after these three preparations:

1. Add the options `-R' and `-f' to the `LESS' environment variable.
In sh shells:
$ LESS="$LESS -R -f"
$ export LESS

2. If your system does not already have the `lessopen.sh' and
`lessclose.sh' scripts, create them and set the `LESSOPEN' and
`LESSCLOSE' environment variables, as indicated in the manual page
(`man less').

3. Add to `lessopen.sh' a piece of script that recognizes PO files
through their file extension and invokes `msgcat' on them,
producing a temporary file. Like this:

case "$1" in
*.po)
tmpfile=`mktemp "${TMPDIR-/tmp}/less.XXXXXX"`
msgcat --to-code=UTF-8 --color "$1" > "$tmpfile"
echo "$tmpfile"
exit 0
;;
esac

File: gettext.info, Node: libgettextpo, Prev: Colorizing, Up: Manipulating

9.12 Writing your own programs that process PO files
====================================================

For the tasks for which a combination of `msgattrib', `msgcat' etc.
is not sufficient, a set of C functions is provided in a library, to
make it possible to process PO files in your own programs. When you
use this library, you don't need to write routines to parse the PO
file; instead, you retrieve a pointer in memory to each of messages
contained in the PO file. Functions for writing PO files are not
provided at this time.

The functions are declared in the header file `<gettext-po.h>', and
are defined in a library called `libgettextpo'.

-- Data Type: po_file_t
This is a pointer type that refers to the contents of a PO file,
after it has been read into memory.

-- Data Type: po_message_iterator_t
This is a pointer type that refers to an iterator that produces a
sequence of messages.

-- Data Type: po_message_t
This is a pointer type that refers to a message of a PO file,
including its translation.

-- Function: po_file_t po_file_read (const char *FILENAME)
The `po_file_read' function reads a PO file into memory. The file
name is given as argument. The return value is a handle to the PO
file's contents, valid until `po_file_free' is called on it. In
case of error, the return value is `NULL', and `errno' is set.

-- Function: void po_file_free (po_file_t FILE)
The `po_file_free' function frees a PO file's contents from memory,
including all messages that are only implicitly accessible through
iterators.

-- Function: const char * const * po_file_domains (po_file_t FILE)
The `po_file_domains' function returns the domains for which the
given PO file has messages. The return value is a `NULL'
terminated array which is valid as long as the FILE handle is
valid. For PO files which contain no `domain' directive, the
return value contains only one domain, namely the default domain
`"messages"'.

-- Function: po_message_iterator_t po_message_iterator (po_file_t
FILE, const char *DOMAIN)
The `po_message_iterator' returns an iterator that will produce the
messages of FILE that belong to the given DOMAIN. If DOMAIN is
`NULL', the default domain is used instead. To list the messages,
use the function `po_next_message' repeatedly.

-- Function: void po_message_iterator_free (po_message_iterator_t
ITERATOR)
The `po_message_iterator_free' function frees an iterator
previously allocated through the `po_message_iterator' function.

-- Function: po_message_t po_next_message (po_message_iterator_t
ITERATOR)
The `po_next_message' function returns the next message from
ITERATOR and advances the iterator. It returns `NULL' when the
iterator has reached the end of its message list.

The following functions returns details of a `po_message_t'. Recall
that the results are valid as long as the FILE handle is valid.

-- Function: const char * po_message_msgid (po_message_t MESSAGE)
The `po_message_msgid' function returns the `msgid' (untranslated
English string) of a message. This is guaranteed to be non-`NULL'.

-- Function: const char * po_message_msgid_plural (po_message_t
MESSAGE)
The `po_message_msgid_plural' function returns the `msgid_plural'
(untranslated English plural string) of a message with plurals, or
`NULL' for a message without plural.

-- Function: const char * po_message_msgstr (po_message_t MESSAGE)
The `po_message_msgstr' function returns the `msgstr' (translation)
of a message. For an untranslated message, the return value is an
empty string.

-- Function: const char * po_message_msgstr_plural (po_message_t
MESSAGE, int INDEX)
The `po_message_msgstr_plural' function returns the
`msgstr[INDEX]' of a message with plurals, or `NULL' when the
INDEX is out of range or for a message without plural.

Here is an example code how these functions can be used.

const char *filename = ...;
po_file_t file = po_file_read (filename);

if (file == NULL)
error (EXIT_FAILURE, errno, "couldn't open the PO file %s", filename);
{
const char * const *domains = po_file_domains (file);
const char * const *domainp;

for (domainp = domains; *domainp; domainp++)
{
const char *domain = *domainp;
po_message_iterator_t iterator = po_message_iterator (file, domain);

for (;;)
{
po_message_t *message = po_next_message (iterator);

if (message == NULL)
break;
{
const char *msgid = po_message_msgid (message);
const char *msgstr = po_message_msgstr (message);

...
}
}
po_message_iterator_free (iterator);
}
}
po_file_free (file);

File: gettext.info, Node: Binaries, Next: Programmers, Prev: Manipulating, Up: Top

10 Producing Binary MO Files
****************************

* Menu:

* msgfmt Invocation:: Invoking the `msgfmt' Program
* msgunfmt Invocation:: Invoking the `msgunfmt' Program
* MO Files:: The Format of GNU MO Files

File: gettext.info, Node: msgfmt Invocation, Next: msgunfmt Invocation, Prev: Binaries, Up: Binaries

10.1 Invoking the `msgfmt' Program
==================================

msgfmt [OPTION] FILENAME.po ...

The `msgfmt' programs generates a binary message catalog from a
textual translation description.

10.1.1 Input file location
--------------------------

`FILENAME.po ...'

If an input file is `-', standard input is read.

10.1.2 Operation mode
---------------------

`-j'
`--java'
Java mode: generate a Java `ResourceBundle' class.

`--java2'
Like -java, and assume Java2 (JDK 1.2 or higher).

`--csharp'
C# mode: generate a .NET .dll file containing a subclass of
`GettextResourceSet'.

`--csharp-resources'
C# resources mode: generate a .NET `.resources' file.

`--tcl'
Tcl mode: generate a tcl/msgcat `.msg' file.

`--qt'
Qt mode: generate a Qt `.qm' file.

10.1.3 Output file location
---------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

`--strict'
Direct the program to work strictly following the Uniforum/Sun
implementation. Currently this only affects the naming of the
output file. If this option is not given the name of the output
file is the same as the domain name. If the strict Uniforum mode
is enabled the suffix `.mo' is added to the file name if it is not
already present.

We find this behaviour of Sun's implementation rather silly and so
by default this mode is _not_ selected.

If the output FILE is `-', output is written to standard output.

10.1.4 Output file location in Java mode
----------------------------------------

`-r RESOURCE'
`--resource=RESOURCE'
Specify the resource name.

`-l LOCALE'
`--locale=LOCALE'
Specify the locale name, either a language specification of the
form LL or a combined language and country specification of the
form LL_CC.

`-d DIRECTORY'
Specify the base directory of classes directory hierarchy.

The class name is determined by appending the locale name to the
resource name, separated with an underscore. The `-d' option is
mandatory. The class is written under the specified directory.

10.1.5 Output file location in C# mode
--------------------------------------

`-r RESOURCE'
`--resource=RESOURCE'
Specify the resource name.

`-l LOCALE'
`--locale=LOCALE'
Specify the locale name, either a language specification of the
form LL or a combined language and country specification of the
form LL_CC.

`-d DIRECTORY'
Specify the base directory for locale dependent `.dll' files.

The `-l' and `-d' options are mandatory. The `.dll' file is written
in a subdirectory of the specified directory whose name depends on the
locale.

10.1.6 Output file location in Tcl mode
---------------------------------------

`-l LOCALE'
`--locale=LOCALE'
Specify the locale name, either a language specification of the
form LL or a combined language and country specification of the
form LL_CC.

`-d DIRECTORY'
Specify the base directory of `.msg' message catalogs.

The `-l' and `-d' options are mandatory. The `.msg' file is written
in the specified directory.

10.1.7 Input file syntax
------------------------

`-P'
`--properties-input'
Assume the input files are Java ResourceBundles in Java
`.properties' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

`--stringtable-input'
Assume the input files are NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource
files in `.strings' syntax, not in PO file syntax.

10.1.8 Input file interpretation
--------------------------------

`-c'
`--check'
Perform all the checks implied by `--check-format',
`--check-header', `--check-domain'.

`--check-format'
Check language dependent format strings.

If the string represents a format string used in a `printf'-like
function both strings should have the same number of `%' format
specifiers, with matching types. If the flag `c-format' or
`possible-c-format' appears in the special comment <#,> for this
entry a check is performed. For example, the check will diagnose
using `%.*s' against `%s', or `%d' against `%s', or `%d' against
`%x'. It can even handle positional parameters.

Normally the `xgettext' program automatically decides whether a
string is a format string or not. This algorithm is not perfect,
though. It might regard a string as a format string though it is
not used in a `printf'-like function and so `msgfmt' might report
errors where there are none.

To solve this problem the programmer can dictate the decision to
the `xgettext' program (*note c-format::). The translator should
not consider removing the flag from the <#,> line. This "fix"
would be reversed again as soon as `msgmerge' is called the next
time.

`--check-header'
Verify presence and contents of the header entry. *Note Header
Entry::, for a description of the various fields in the header
entry.

`--check-domain'
Check for conflicts between domain directives and the
`--output-file' option

`-C'
`--check-compatibility'
Check that GNU msgfmt behaves like X/Open msgfmt. This will give
an error when attempting to use the GNU extensions.

`--check-accelerators[=CHAR]'
Check presence of keyboard accelerators for menu items. This is
based on the convention used in some GUIs that a keyboard
accelerator in a menu item string is designated by an immediately
preceding `&' character. Sometimes a keyboard accelerator is also
called "keyboard mnemonic". This check verifies that if the
untranslated string has exactly one `&' character, the translated
string has exactly one `&' as well. If this option is given with
a CHAR argument, this CHAR should be a non-alphanumeric character
and is used as keyboard accelerator mark instead of `&'.

`-f'
`--use-fuzzy'
Use fuzzy entries in output. Note that using this option is
usually wrong, because fuzzy messages are exactly those which have
not been validated by a human translator.

10.1.9 Output details
---------------------

`-a NUMBER'
`--alignment=NUMBER'
Align strings to NUMBER bytes (default: 1).

`--no-hash'
Don't include a hash table in the binary file. Lookup will be
more expensive at run time (binary search instead of hash table
lookup).

10.1.10 Informative output
--------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

`--statistics'
Print statistics about translations.

`-v'
`--verbose'
Increase verbosity level.

File: gettext.info, Node: msgunfmt Invocation, Next: MO Files, Prev: msgfmt Invocation, Up: Binaries

10.2 Invoking the `msgunfmt' Program
====================================

msgunfmt [OPTION] [FILE]...

The `msgunfmt' program converts a binary message catalog to a
Uniforum style .po file.

10.2.1 Operation mode
---------------------

`-j'
`--java'
Java mode: input is a Java `ResourceBundle' class.

`--csharp'
C# mode: input is a .NET .dll file containing a subclass of
`GettextResourceSet'.

`--csharp-resources'
C# resources mode: input is a .NET `.resources' file.

`--tcl'
Tcl mode: input is a tcl/msgcat `.msg' file.

10.2.2 Input file location
--------------------------

`FILE ...'
Input .mo files.

If no input FILE is given or if it is `-', standard input is read.

10.2.3 Input file location in Java mode
---------------------------------------

`-r RESOURCE'
`--resource=RESOURCE'
Specify the resource name.

`-l LOCALE'
`--locale=LOCALE'
Specify the locale name, either a language specification of the
form LL or a combined language and country specification of the
form LL_CC.

The class name is determined by appending the locale name to the
resource name, separated with an underscore. The class is located
using the `CLASSPATH'.

10.2.4 Input file location in C# mode
-------------------------------------

`-r RESOURCE'
`--resource=RESOURCE'
Specify the resource name.

`-l LOCALE'
`--locale=LOCALE'
Specify the locale name, either a language specification of the
form LL or a combined language and country specification of the
form LL_CC.

`-d DIRECTORY'
Specify the base directory for locale dependent `.dll' files.

The `-l' and `-d' options are mandatory. The `.msg' file is located
in a subdirectory of the specified directory whose name depends on the
locale.

10.2.5 Input file location in Tcl mode
--------------------------------------

`-l LOCALE'
`--locale=LOCALE'
Specify the locale name, either a language specification of the
form LL or a combined language and country specification of the
form LL_CC.

`-d DIRECTORY'
Specify the base directory of `.msg' message catalogs.

The `-l' and `-d' options are mandatory. The `.msg' file is located
in the specified directory.

10.2.6 Output file location
---------------------------

`-o FILE'
`--output-file=FILE'
Write output to specified file.

The results are written to standard output if no output file is
specified or if it is `-'.

10.2.7 Output details
---------------------

`--force-po'
Always write an output file even if it contains no message.

`-i'
`--indent'
Write the .po file using indented style.

`--strict'
Write out a strict Uniforum conforming PO file. Note that this
Uniforum format should be avoided because it doesn't support the
GNU extensions.

`-p'
`--properties-output'
Write out a Java ResourceBundle in Java `.properties' syntax. Note
that this file format doesn't support plural forms and silently
drops obsolete messages.

`--stringtable-output'
Write out a NeXTstep/GNUstep localized resource file in `.strings'
syntax. Note that this file format doesn't support plural forms.

`-s'
`--sort-output'
Generate sorted output. Note that using this option makes it much
harder for the translator to understand each message's context.

10.2.8 Informative output
-------------------------

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

`-v'
`--verbose'
Increase verbosity level.

File: gettext.info, Node: MO Files, Prev: msgunfmt Invocation, Up: Binaries

10.3 The Format of GNU MO Files
===============================

The format of the generated MO files is best described by a picture,
which appears below.

The first two words serve the identification of the file. The magic
number will always signal GNU MO files. The number is stored in the
byte order of the generating machine, so the magic number really is two
numbers: `0x950412de' and `0xde120495'. The second word describes the
current revision of the file format. For now the revision is 0. This
might change in future versions, and ensures that the readers of MO
files can distinguish new formats from old ones, so that both can be
handled correctly. The version is kept separate from the magic number,
instead of using different magic numbers for different formats, mainly
because `/etc/magic' is not updated often. It might be better to have
magic separated from internal format version identification.

Follow a number of pointers to later tables in the file, allowing
for the extension of the prefix part of MO files without having to
recompile programs reading them. This might become useful for later
inserting a few flag bits, indication about the charset used, new
tables, or other things.

Then, at offset O and offset T in the picture, two tables of string
descriptors can be found. In both tables, each string descriptor uses
two 32 bits integers, one for the string length, another for the offset
of the string in the MO file, counting in bytes from the start of the
file. The first table contains descriptors for the original strings,
and is sorted so the original strings are in increasing lexicographical
order. The second table contains descriptors for the translated
strings, and is parallel to the first table: to find the corresponding
translation one has to access the array slot in the second array with
the same index.

Having the original strings sorted enables the use of simple binary
search, for when the MO file does not contain an hashing table, or for
when it is not practical to use the hashing table provided in the MO
file. This also has another advantage, as the empty string in a PO
file GNU `gettext' is usually _translated_ into some system information
attached to that particular MO file, and the empty string necessarily
becomes the first in both the original and translated tables, making
the system information very easy to find.

The size S of the hash table can be zero. In this case, the hash
table itself is not contained in the MO file. Some people might prefer
this because a precomputed hashing table takes disk space, and does not
win _that_ much speed. The hash table contains indices to the sorted
array of strings in the MO file. Conflict resolution is done by double
hashing. The precise hashing algorithm used is fairly dependent on GNU
`gettext' code, and is not documented here.

As for the strings themselves, they follow the hash file, and each
is terminated with a <NUL>, and this <NUL> is not counted in the length
which appears in the string descriptor. The `msgfmt' program has an
option selecting the alignment for MO file strings. With this option,
each string is separately aligned so it starts at an offset which is a
multiple of the alignment value. On some RISC machines, a correct
alignment will speed things up.

Contexts are stored by storing the concatenation of the context, a
<EOT> byte, and the original string, instead of the original string.

Plural forms are stored by letting the plural of the original string
follow the singular of the original string, separated through a <NUL>
byte. The length which appears in the string descriptor includes both.
However, only the singular of the original string takes part in the
hash table lookup. The plural variants of the translation are all
stored consecutively, separated through a <NUL> byte. Here also, the
length in the string descriptor includes all of them.

Nothing prevents a MO file from having embedded <NUL>s in strings.
However, the program interface currently used already presumes that
strings are <NUL> terminated, so embedded <NUL>s are somewhat useless.
But the MO file format is general enough so other interfaces would be
later possible, if for example, we ever want to implement wide
characters right in MO files, where <NUL> bytes may accidentally
appear. (No, we don't want to have wide characters in MO files. They
would make the file unnecessarily large, and the `wchar_t' type being
platform dependent, MO files would be platform dependent as well.)

This particular issue has been strongly debated in the GNU `gettext'
development forum, and it is expectable that MO file format will evolve
or change over time. It is even possible that many formats may later
be supported concurrently. But surely, we have to start somewhere, and
the MO file format described here is a good start. Nothing is cast in
concrete, and the format may later evolve fairly easily, so we should
feel comfortable with the current approach.

byte
+------------------------------------------+
0 | magic number = 0x950412de |
| |
4 | file format revision = 0 |
| |
8 | number of strings | == N
| |
12 | offset of table with original strings | == O
| |
16 | offset of table with translation strings | == T
| |
20 | size of hashing table | == S
| |
24 | offset of hashing table | == H
| |
. .
. (possibly more entries later) .
. .
| |
O | length & offset 0th string ----------------.
O + 8 | length & offset 1st string ------------------.
... ... | |
O + ((N-1)*8)| length & offset (N-1)th string | | |
| | | |
T | length & offset 0th translation ---------------.
T + 8 | length & offset 1st translation -----------------.
... ... | | | |
T + ((N-1)*8)| length & offset (N-1)th translation | | | | |
| | | | | |
H | start hash table | | | | |
... ... | | | |
H + S * 4 | end hash table | | | | |
| | | | | |
| NUL terminated 0th string <----------------' | | |
| | | | |
| NUL terminated 1st string <------------------' | |
| | | |
... ... | |
| | | |
| NUL terminated 0th translation <---------------' |
| | |
| NUL terminated 1st translation <-----------------'
| |
... ...
| |
+------------------------------------------+

File: gettext.info, Node: Programmers, Next: Translators, Prev: Binaries, Up: Top

11 The Programmer's View
************************

One aim of the current message catalog implementation provided by
GNU `gettext' was to use the system's message catalog handling, if the
installer wishes to do so. So we perhaps should first take a look at
the solutions we know about. The people in the POSIX committee did not
manage to agree on one of the semi-official standards which we'll
describe below. In fact they couldn't agree on anything, so they
decided only to include an example of an interface. The major Unix
vendors are split in the usage of the two most important
specifications: X/Open's catgets vs. Uniforum's gettext interface.
We'll describe them both and later explain our solution of this dilemma.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: catgets, Next: gettext, Prev: Programmers, Up: Programmers

11.1 About `catgets'
====================

The `catgets' implementation is defined in the X/Open Portability
Guide, Volume 3, XSI Supplementary Definitions, Chapter 5. But the
process of creating this standard seemed to be too slow for some of the
Unix vendors so they created their implementations on preliminary
versions of the standard. Of course this leads again to problems while
writing platform independent programs: even the usage of `catgets' does
not guarantee a unique interface.

Another, personal comment on this that only a bunch of committee
members could have made this interface. They never really tried to
program using this interface. It is a fast, memory-saving
implementation, an user can happily live with it. But programmers hate
it (at least I and some others do...)

But we must not forget one point: after all the trouble with
transferring the rights on Unix(tm) they at last came to X/Open, the
very same who published this specification. This leads me to making
the prediction that this interface will be in future Unix standards
(e.g. Spec1170) and therefore part of all Unix implementation
(implementations, which are _allowed_ to wear this name).

* Menu:

* Interface to catgets:: The interface
* Problems with catgets:: Problems with the `catgets' interface?!

File: gettext.info, Node: Interface to catgets, Next: Problems with catgets, Prev: catgets, Up: catgets

11.1.1 The Interface
--------------------

The interface to the `catgets' implementation consists of three
functions which correspond to those used in file access: `catopen' to
open the catalog for using, `catgets' for accessing the message tables,
and `catclose' for closing after work is done. Prototypes for the
functions and the needed definitions are in the `<nl_types.h>' header
file.

`catopen' is used like in this:

nl_catd catd = catopen ("catalog_name", 0);

The function takes as the argument the name of the catalog. This
usual refers to the name of the program or the package. The second
parameter is not further specified in the standard. I don't even know
whether it is implemented consistently among various systems. So the
common advice is to use `0' as the value. The return value is a handle
to the message catalog, equivalent to handles to file returned by
`open'.

This handle is of course used in the `catgets' function which can be
used like this:

char *translation = catgets (catd, set_no, msg_id, "original string");

The first parameter is this catalog descriptor. The second parameter
specifies the set of messages in this catalog, in which the message
described by `msg_id' is obtained. `catgets' therefore uses a
three-stage addressing:

catalog name => set number => message ID => translation

The fourth argument is not used to address the translation. It is
given as a default value in case when one of the addressing stages
fail. One important thing to remember is that although the return type
of catgets is `char *' the resulting string _must not_ be changed. It
should better be `const char *', but the standard is published in 1988,
one year before ANSI C.

The last of these functions is used and behaves as expected:

catclose (catd);

After this no `catgets' call using the descriptor is legal anymore.

File: gettext.info, Node: Problems with catgets, Prev: Interface to catgets, Up: catgets

11.1.2 Problems with the `catgets' Interface?!
----------------------------------------------

Now that this description seemed to be really easy -- where are the
problems we speak of? In fact the interface could be used in a
reasonable way, but constructing the message catalogs is a pain. The
reason for this lies in the third argument of `catgets': the unique
message ID. This has to be a numeric value for all messages in a single
set. Perhaps you could imagine the problems keeping such a list while
changing the source code. Add a new message here, remove one there. Of
course there have been developed a lot of tools helping to organize this
chaos but one as the other fails in one aspect or the other. We don't
want to say that the other approach has no problems but they are far
more easy to manage.

File: gettext.info, Node: gettext, Next: Comparison, Prev: catgets, Up: Programmers

11.2 About `gettext'
====================

The definition of the `gettext' interface comes from a Uniforum
proposal. It was submitted there by Sun, who had implemented the
`gettext' function in SunOS 4, around 1990. Nowadays, the `gettext'
interface is specified by the OpenI18N standard.

The main point about this solution is that it does not follow the
method of normal file handling (open-use-close) and that it does not
burden the programmer with so many tasks, especially the unique key
handling. Of course here also a unique key is needed, but this key is
the message itself (how long or short it is). See *Note Comparison::
for a more detailed comparison of the two methods.

The following section contains a rather detailed description of the
interface. We make it that detailed because this is the interface we
chose for the GNU `gettext' Library. Programmers interested in using
this library will be interested in this description.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Interface to gettext, Next: Ambiguities, Prev: gettext, Up: gettext

11.2.1 The Interface
--------------------

The minimal functionality an interface must have is a) to select a
domain the strings are coming from (a single domain for all programs is
not reasonable because its construction and maintenance is difficult,
perhaps impossible) and b) to access a string in a selected domain.

This is principally the description of the `gettext' interface. It
has a global domain which unqualified usages reference. Of course this
domain is selectable by the user.

char *textdomain (const char *domain_name);

This provides the possibility to change or query the current status
of the current global domain of the `LC_MESSAGE' category. The
argument is a null-terminated string, whose characters must be legal in
the use in filenames. If the DOMAIN_NAME argument is `NULL', the
function returns the current value. If no value has been set before,
the name of the default domain is returned: _messages_. Please note
that although the return value of `textdomain' is of type `char *' no
changing is allowed. It is also important to know that no checks of
the availability are made. If the name is not available you will see
this by the fact that no translations are provided.

To use a domain set by `textdomain' the function

char *gettext (const char *msgid);

is to be used. This is the simplest reasonable form one can imagine.
The translation of the string MSGID is returned if it is available in
the current domain. If it is not available, the argument itself is
returned. If the argument is `NULL' the result is undefined.

One thing which should come into mind is that no explicit dependency
to the used domain is given. The current value of the domain is used.
If this changes between two executions of the same `gettext' call in
the program, both calls reference a different message catalog.

For the easiest case, which is normally used in internationalized
packages, once at the beginning of execution a call to `textdomain' is
issued, setting the domain to a unique name, normally the package name.
In the following code all strings which have to be translated are
filtered through the gettext function. That's all, the package speaks
your language.

File: gettext.info, Node: Ambiguities, Next: Locating Catalogs, Prev: Interface to gettext, Up: gettext

11.2.2 Solving Ambiguities
--------------------------

While this single name domain works well for most applications there
might be the need to get translations from more than one domain. Of
course one could switch between different domains with calls to
`textdomain', but this is really not convenient nor is it fast. A
possible situation could be one case subject to discussion during this
writing: all error messages of functions in the set of common used
functions should go into a separate domain `error'. By this mean we
would only need to translate them once. Another case are messages from
a library, as these _have_ to be independent of the current domain set
by the application.

For this reasons there are two more functions to retrieve strings:

char *dgettext (const char *domain_name, const char *msgid);
char *dcgettext (const char *domain_name, const char *msgid,
int category);

Both take an additional argument at the first place, which
corresponds to the argument of `textdomain'. The third argument of
`dcgettext' allows to use another locale category but `LC_MESSAGES'.
But I really don't know where this can be useful. If the DOMAIN_NAME
is `NULL' or CATEGORY has an value beside the known ones, the result is
undefined. It should also be noted that this function is not part of
the second known implementation of this function family, the one found
in Solaris.

A second ambiguity can arise by the fact, that perhaps more than one
domain has the same name. This can be solved by specifying where the
needed message catalog files can be found.

char *bindtextdomain (const char *domain_name,
const char *dir_name);

Calling this function binds the given domain to a file in the
specified directory (how this file is determined follows below).
Especially a file in the systems default place is not favored against
the specified file anymore (as it would be by solely using
`textdomain'). A `NULL' pointer for the DIR_NAME parameter returns the
binding associated with DOMAIN_NAME. If DOMAIN_NAME itself is `NULL'
nothing happens and a `NULL' pointer is returned. Here again as for
all the other functions is true that none of the return value must be
changed!

It is important to remember that relative path names for the
DIR_NAME parameter can be trouble. Since the path is always computed
relative to the current directory different results will be achieved
when the program executes a `chdir' command. Relative paths should
always be avoided to avoid dependencies and unreliabilities.

File: gettext.info, Node: Locating Catalogs, Next: Charset conversion, Prev: Ambiguities, Up: gettext

11.2.3 Locating Message Catalog Files
-------------------------------------

Because many different languages for many different packages have to
be stored we need some way to add these information to file message
catalog files. The way usually used in Unix environments is have this
encoding in the file name. This is also done here. The directory name
given in `bindtextdomain's second argument (or the default directory),
followed by the name of the locale, the locale category, and the domain
name are concatenated:

DIR_NAME/LOCALE/LC_CATEGORY/DOMAIN_NAME.mo

The default value for DIR_NAME is system specific. For the GNU
library, and for packages adhering to its conventions, it's:
/usr/local/share/locale

LOCALE is the name of the locale category which is designated by
`LC_CATEGORY'. For `gettext' and `dgettext' this `LC_CATEGORY' is
always `LC_MESSAGES'.(1) The name of the locale category is determined
through `setlocale (LC_CATEGORY, NULL)'. (2) When using the function
`dcgettext', you can specify the locale category through the third
argument.

---------- Footnotes ----------

(1) Some system, e.g. mingw, don't have `LC_MESSAGES'. Here we use
a more or less arbitrary value for it, namely 1729, the smallest
positive integer which can be represented in two different ways as the
sum of two cubes.

(2) When the system does not support `setlocale' its behavior in
setting the locale values is simulated by looking at the environment
variables.

File: gettext.info, Node: Charset conversion, Next: Contexts, Prev: Locating Catalogs, Up: gettext

11.2.4 How to specify the output character set `gettext' uses
-------------------------------------------------------------

`gettext' not only looks up a translation in a message catalog. It
also converts the translation on the fly to the desired output character
set. This is useful if the user is working in a different character set
than the translator who created the message catalog, because it avoids
distributing variants of message catalogs which differ only in the
character set.

The output character set is, by default, the value of `nl_langinfo
(CODESET)', which depends on the `LC_CTYPE' part of the current locale.
But programs which store strings in a locale independent way (e.g.
UTF-8) can request that `gettext' and related functions return the
translations in that encoding, by use of the `bind_textdomain_codeset'
function.

Note that the MSGID argument to `gettext' is not subject to
character set conversion. Also, when `gettext' does not find a
translation for MSGID, it returns MSGID unchanged - independently of
the current output character set. It is therefore recommended that all
MSGIDs be US-ASCII strings.

-- Function: char * bind_textdomain_codeset (const char *DOMAINNAME,
const char *CODESET)
The `bind_textdomain_codeset' function can be used to specify the
output character set for message catalogs for domain DOMAINNAME.
The CODESET argument must be a valid codeset name which can be used
for the `iconv_open' function, or a null pointer.

If the CODESET parameter is the null pointer,
`bind_textdomain_codeset' returns the currently selected codeset
for the domain with the name DOMAINNAME. It returns `NULL' if no
codeset has yet been selected.

The `bind_textdomain_codeset' function can be used several times.
If used multiple times with the same DOMAINNAME argument, the
later call overrides the settings made by the earlier one.

The `bind_textdomain_codeset' function returns a pointer to a
string containing the name of the selected codeset. The string is
allocated internally in the function and must not be changed by the
user. If the system went out of core during the execution of
`bind_textdomain_codeset', the return value is `NULL' and the
global variable ERRNO is set accordingly.

File: gettext.info, Node: Contexts, Next: Plural forms, Prev: Charset conversion, Up: gettext

11.2.5 Using contexts for solving ambiguities
---------------------------------------------

One place where the `gettext' functions, if used normally, have big
problems is within programs with graphical user interfaces (GUIs). The
problem is that many of the strings which have to be translated are very
short. They have to appear in pull-down menus which restricts the
length. But strings which are not containing entire sentences or at
least large fragments of a sentence may appear in more than one
situation in the program but might have different translations. This is
especially true for the one-word strings which are frequently used in
GUI programs.

As a consequence many people say that the `gettext' approach is
wrong and instead `catgets' should be used which indeed does not have
this problem. But there is a very simple and powerful method to handle
this kind of problems with the `gettext' functions.

Contexts can be added to strings to be translated. A context
dependent translation lookup is when a translation for a given string
is searched, that is limited to a given context. The translation for
the same string in a different context can be different. The different
translations of the same string in different contexts can be stored in
the in the same MO file, and can be edited by the translator in the
same PO file.

The `gettext.h' include file contains the lookup macros for strings
with contexts. They are implemented as thin macros and inline functions
over the functions from `<libintl.h>'.

const char *pgettext (const char *msgctxt, const char *msgid);

In a call of this macro, MSGCTXT and MSGID must be string literals.
The macro returns the translation of MSGID, restricted to the context
given by MSGCTXT.

The MSGCTXT string is visible in the PO file to the translator. You
should try to make it somehow canonical and never changing. Because
every time you change an MSGCTXT, the translator will have to review
the translation of MSGID.

Finding a canonical MSGCTXT string that doesn't change over time can
be hard. But you shouldn't use the file name or class name containing
the `pgettext' call - because it is a common development task to rename
a file or a class, and it shouldn't cause translator work. Also you
shouldn't use a comment in the form of a complete English sentence as
MSGCTXT - because orthography or grammar changes are often applied to
such sentences, and again, it shouldn't force the translator to do a
review.

The `p' in `pgettext' stands for "particular": `pgettext' fetches a
particular translation of the MSGID.

const char *dpgettext (const char *domain_name,
const char *msgctxt, const char *msgid);
const char *dcpgettext (const char *domain_name,
const char *msgctxt, const char *msgid,
int category);

These are generalizations of `pgettext'. They behave similarly to
`dgettext' and `dcgettext', respectively. The DOMAIN_NAME argument
defines the translation domain. The CATEGORY argument allows to use
another locale category than `LC_MESSAGES'.

As as example consider the following fictional situation. A GUI
program has a menu bar with the following entries:

+------------+------------+--------------------------------------+
| File | Printer | |
+------------+------------+--------------------------------------+
| Open | | Select |
| New | | Open |
+----------+ | Connect |
+----------+

To have the strings `File', `Printer', `Open', `New', `Select', and
`Connect' translated there has to be at some point in the code a call
to a function of the `gettext' family. But in two places the string
passed into the function would be `Open'. The translations might not
be the same and therefore we are in the dilemma described above.

What distinguishes the two places is the menu path from the menu
root to the particular menu entries:

The context is thus the menu path without its last part. So, the
calls look like this:

Whether or not to use the `|' character at the end of the context is
a matter of style.

For more complex cases, where the MSGCTXT or MSGID are not string
literals, more general macros are available:

const char *pgettext_expr (const char *msgctxt, const char *msgid);
const char *dpgettext_expr (const char *domain_name,
const char *msgctxt, const char *msgid);
const char *dcpgettext_expr (const char *domain_name,
const char *msgctxt, const char *msgid,
int category);

Here MSGCTXT and MSGID can be arbitrary string-valued expressions.
These macros are more general. But in the case that both argument
expressions are string literals, the macros without the `_expr' suffix
are more efficient.

File: gettext.info, Node: Plural forms, Next: Optimized gettext, Prev: Contexts, Up: gettext

11.2.6 Additional functions for plural forms
--------------------------------------------

The functions of the `gettext' family described so far (and all the
`catgets' functions as well) have one problem in the real world which
have been neglected completely in all existing approaches. What is
meant here is the handling of plural forms.

Looking through Unix source code before the time anybody thought
about internationalization (and, sadly, even afterwards) one can often
find code similar to the following:

printf ("%d file%s deleted", n, n == 1 ? "" : "s");

After the first complaints from people internationalizing the code
people either completely avoided formulations like this or used strings
like `"file(s)"'. Both look unnatural and should be avoided. First
tries to solve the problem correctly looked like this:

if (n == 1)
printf ("%d file deleted", n);
else
printf ("%d files deleted", n);

But this does not solve the problem. It helps languages where the
plural form of a noun is not simply constructed by adding an `s' but
that is all. Once again people fell into the trap of believing the
rules their language is using are universal. But the handling of plural
forms differs widely between the language families. For example, Rafal
Maszkowski `<rzm@mat.uni.torun.pl>' reports:

In Polish we use e.g. plik (file) this way:
1 plik
2,3,4 pliki
5-21 pliko'w
22-24 pliki
25-31 pliko'w
and so on (o' means 8859-2 oacute which should be rather okreska,
similar to aogonek).

There are two things which can differ between languages (and even
inside language families);

* The form how plural forms are built differs. This is a problem
with languages which have many irregularities. German, for
instance, is a drastic case. Though English and German are part
of the same language family (Germanic), the almost regular forming
of plural noun forms (appending an `s') is hardly found in German.

* The number of plural forms differ. This is somewhat surprising for
those who only have experiences with Romanic and Germanic languages
since here the number is the same (there are two).

But other language families have only one form or many forms. More
information on this in an extra section.

The consequence of this is that application writers should not try to
solve the problem in their code. This would be localization since it is
only usable for certain, hardcoded language environments. Instead the
extended `gettext' interface should be used.

These extra functions are taking instead of the one key string two
strings and a numerical argument. The idea behind this is that using
the numerical argument and the first string as a key, the implementation
can select using rules specified by the translator the right plural
form. The two string arguments then will be used to provide a return
value in case no message catalog is found (similar to the normal
`gettext' behavior). In this case the rules for Germanic language is
used and it is assumed that the first string argument is the singular
form, the second the plural form.

This has the consequence that programs without language catalogs can
display the correct strings only if the program itself is written using
a Germanic language. This is a limitation but since the GNU C library
(as well as the GNU `gettext' package) are written as part of the GNU
package and the coding standards for the GNU project require program
being written in English, this solution nevertheless fulfills its
purpose.

-- Function: char * ngettext (const char *MSGID1, const char *MSGID2,
unsigned long int N)
The `ngettext' function is similar to the `gettext' function as it
finds the message catalogs in the same way. But it takes two
extra arguments. The MSGID1 parameter must contain the singular
form of the string to be converted. It is also used as the key
for the search in the catalog. The MSGID2 parameter is the plural
form. The parameter N is used to determine the plural form. If no
message catalog is found MSGID1 is returned if `n == 1', otherwise
`msgid2'.

An example for the use of this function is:

printf (ngettext ("%d file removed", "%d files removed", n), n);

Please note that the numeric value N has to be passed to the
`printf' function as well. It is not sufficient to pass it only to
`ngettext'.

In the English singular case, the number - always 1 - can be
replaced with "one":

printf (ngettext ("One file removed", "%d files removed", n), n);

This works because the `printf' function discards excess arguments
that are not consumed by the format string.

It is also possible to use this function when the strings don't
contain a cardinal number:

puts (ngettext ("Delete the selected file?",
"Delete the selected files?",
n));

In this case the number N is only used to choose the plural form.

-- Function: char * dngettext (const char *DOMAIN, const char *MSGID1,
const char *MSGID2, unsigned long int N)
The `dngettext' is similar to the `dgettext' function in the way
the message catalog is selected. The difference is that it takes
two extra parameter to provide the correct plural form. These two
parameters are handled in the same way `ngettext' handles them.

-- Function: char * dcngettext (const char *DOMAIN, const char
*MSGID1, const char *MSGID2, unsigned long int N, int
CATEGORY)
The `dcngettext' is similar to the `dcgettext' function in the way
the message catalog is selected. The difference is that it takes
two extra parameter to provide the correct plural form. These two
parameters are handled in the same way `ngettext' handles them.

Now, how do these functions solve the problem of the plural forms?
Without the input of linguists (which was not available) it was not
possible to determine whether there are only a few different forms in
which plural forms are formed or whether the number can increase with
every new supported language.

Therefore the solution implemented is to allow the translator to
specify the rules of how to select the plural form. Since the formula
varies with every language this is the only viable solution except for
hardcoding the information in the code (which still would require the
possibility of extensions to not prevent the use of new languages).

The information about the plural form selection has to be stored in
the header entry of the PO file (the one with the empty `msgid' string).
The plural form information looks like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=2; plural=n == 1 ? 0 : 1;

The `nplurals' value must be a decimal number which specifies how
many different plural forms exist for this language. The string
following `plural' is an expression which is using the C language
syntax. Exceptions are that no negative numbers are allowed, numbers
must be decimal, and the only variable allowed is `n'. Spaces are
allowed in the expression, but backslash-newlines are not; in the
examples below the backslash-newlines are present for formatting
purposes only. This expression will be evaluated whenever one of the
functions `ngettext', `dngettext', or `dcngettext' is called. The
numeric value passed to these functions is then substituted for all uses
of the variable `n' in the expression. The resulting value then must
be greater or equal to zero and smaller than the value given as the
value of `nplurals'.

The following rules are known at this point. The language with families
are listed. But this does not necessarily mean the information can be
generalized for the whole family (as can be easily seen in the table
below).(1)

Only one form:
Some languages only require one single form. There is no
distinction between the singular and plural form. An appropriate
header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=1; plural=0;

Languages with this property include:

Asian family
Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese

Turkic/Altaic family
Turkish

Two forms, singular used for one only
This is the form used in most existing programs since it is what
English is using. A header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=2; plural=n != 1;

(Note: this uses the feature of C expressions that boolean
expressions have to value zero or one.)

Languages with this property include:

Germanic family
Danish, Dutch, English, Faroese, German, Norwegian, Swedish

Finno-Ugric family
Estonian, Finnish

Latin/Greek family
Greek

Semitic family
Hebrew

Romanic family
Italian, Portuguese, Spanish

Artificial
Esperanto

Another language using the same header entry is:

Finno-Ugric family
Hungarian

Hungarian does not appear to have a plural if you look at
sentences involving cardinal numbers. For example, "1 apple" is
"1 alma", and "123 apples" is "123 alma". But when the number is
not explicit, the distinction between singular and plural exists:
"the apple" is "az alma", and "the apples" is "az alma'k". Since
`ngettext' has to support both types of sentences, it is
classified here, under "two forms".

Two forms, singular used for zero and one
Exceptional case in the language family. The header entry would
be:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=2; plural=n>1;

Languages with this property include:

Romanic family
French, Brazilian Portuguese

Three forms, special case for zero
The header entry would be:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; plural=n%10==1 && n%100!=11 ? 0 : n != 0 ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Baltic family
Latvian

Three forms, special cases for one and two
The header entry would be:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; plural=n==1 ? 0 : n==2 ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Celtic
Gaeilge (Irish)

Three forms, special case for numbers ending in 00 or [2-9][0-9]
The header entry would be:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; \
plural=n==1 ? 0 : (n==0 || (n%100 > 0 && n%100 < 20)) ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Romanic family
Romanian

Three forms, special case for numbers ending in 1[2-9]
The header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; \
plural=n%10==1 && n%100!=11 ? 0 : \
n%10>=2 && (n%100<10 || n%100>=20) ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Baltic family
Lithuanian

Three forms, special cases for numbers ending in 1 and 2, 3, 4, except those ending in 1[1-4]
The header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; \
plural=n%10==1 && n%100!=11 ? 0 : \
n%10>=2 && n%10<=4 && (n%100<10 || n%100>=20) ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Slavic family
Croatian, Serbian, Russian, Ukrainian

Three forms, special cases for 1 and 2, 3, 4
The header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; \
plural=(n==1) ? 0 : (n>=2 && n<=4) ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Slavic family
Slovak, Czech

Three forms, special case for one and some numbers ending in 2, 3, or 4
The header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=3; \
plural=n==1 ? 0 : \
n%10>=2 && n%10<=4 && (n%100<10 || n%100>=20) ? 1 : 2;

Languages with this property include:

Slavic family
Polish

Four forms, special case for one and all numbers ending in 02, 03, or 04
The header entry would look like this:

Plural-Forms: nplurals=4; \
plural=n%100==1 ? 0 : n%100==2 ? 1 : n%100==3 || n%100==4 ? 2 : 3;

Languages with this property include:

Slavic family
Slovenian

You might now ask, `ngettext' handles only numbers N of type
`unsigned long'. What about larger integer types? What about negative
numbers? What about floating-point numbers?

About larger integer types, such as `uintmax_t' or `unsigned long
long': they can be handled by reducing the value to a range that fits
in an `unsigned long'. Simply casting the value to `unsigned long'
would not do the right thing, since it would treat `ULONG_MAX + 1' like
zero, `ULONG_MAX + 2' like singular, and the like. Here you can
exploit the fact that all mentioned plural form formulas eventually
become periodic, with a period that is a divisor of 100 (or 1000 or
1000000). So, when you reduce a large value to another one in the
range [1000000, 1999999] that ends in the same 6 decimal digits, you
can assume that it will lead to the same plural form selection. This
code does this:

#include <inttypes.h>
uintmax_t nbytes = ...;
printf (ngettext ("The file has %"PRIuMAX" byte.",
"The file has %"PRIuMAX" bytes.",
(nbytes > ULONG_MAX
? (nbytes % 1000000) + 1000000
: nbytes)),
nbytes);

Negative and floating-point values usually represent physical
entities for which singular and plural don't clearly apply. In such
cases, there is no need to use `ngettext'; a simple `gettext' call with
a form suitable for all values will do. For example:

printf (gettext ("Time elapsed: %.3f seconds"),
num_milliseconds * 0.001);

Even if NUM_MILLISECONDS happens to be a multiple of 1000, the output
Time elapsed: 1.000 seconds
is acceptable in English, and similarly for other languages.

---------- Footnotes ----------

(1) Additions are welcome. Send appropriate information to
<bug-gnu-gettext@gnu.org> and <bug-glibc-manual@gnu.org>.

File: gettext.info, Node: Optimized gettext, Prev: Plural forms, Up: gettext

11.2.7 Optimization of the *gettext functions
---------------------------------------------

At this point of the discussion we should talk about an advantage of
the GNU `gettext' implementation. Some readers might have pointed out
that an internationalized program might have a poor performance if some
string has to be translated in an inner loop. While this is unavoidable
when the string varies from one run of the loop to the other it is
simply a waste of time when the string is always the same. Take the
following example:

{
while (...)
{
puts (gettext ("Hello world"));
}
}

When the locale selection does not change between two runs the resulting
string is always the same. One way to use this is:

{
str = gettext ("Hello world");
while (...)
{
puts (str);
}
}

But this solution is not usable in all situation (e.g. when the locale
selection changes) nor does it lead to legible code.

For this reason, GNU `gettext' caches previous translation results.
When the same translation is requested twice, with no new message
catalogs being loaded in between, `gettext' will, the second time, find
the result through a single cache lookup.

File: gettext.info, Node: Comparison, Next: Using libintl.a, Prev: gettext, Up: Programmers

11.3 Comparing the Two Interfaces
=================================

The following discussion is perhaps a little bit colored. As said
above we implemented GNU `gettext' following the Uniforum proposal and
this surely has its reasons. But it should show how we came to this
decision.

First we take a look at the developing process. When we write an
application using NLS provided by `gettext' we proceed as always. Only
when we come to a string which might be seen by the users and thus has
to be translated we use `gettext("...")' instead of `"..."'. At the
beginning of each source file (or in a central header file) we define

#define gettext(String) (String)

Even this definition can be avoided when the system supports the
`gettext' function in its C library. When we compile this code the
result is the same as if no NLS code is used. When you take a look at
the GNU `gettext' code you will see that we use `_("...")' instead of
`gettext("...")'. This reduces the number of additional characters per
translatable string to _3_ (in words: three).

When now a production version of the program is needed we simply
replace the definition

#define _(String) (String)

#include <libintl.h>
#define _(String) gettext (String)

Additionally we run the program `xgettext' on all source code file
which contain translatable strings and that's it: we have a running
program which does not depend on translations to be available, but which
can use any that becomes available.

The same procedure can be done for the `gettext_noop' invocations
(*note Special cases::). One usually defines `gettext_noop' as a no-op
macro. So you should consider the following code for your project:

#define gettext_noop(String) String
#define N_(String) gettext_noop (String)

`N_' is a short form similar to `_'. The `Makefile' in the `po/'
directory of GNU `gettext' knows by default both of the mentioned short
forms so you are invited to follow this proposal for your own ease.

Now to `catgets'. The main problem is the work for the programmer.
Every time he comes to a translatable string he has to define a number
(or a symbolic constant) which has also be defined in the message
catalog file. He also has to take care for duplicate entries,
duplicate message IDs etc. If he wants to have the same quality in the
message catalog as the GNU `gettext' program provides he also has to
put the descriptive comments for the strings and the location in all
source code files in the message catalog. This is nearly a Mission:
Impossible.

But there are also some points people might call advantages speaking
for `catgets'. If you have a single word in a string and this string
is used in different contexts it is likely that in one or the other
language the word has different translations. Example:

printf ("%s: %d", gettext ("number"), number_of_errors)

printf ("you should see %d %s", number_count,
number_count == 1 ? gettext ("number") : gettext ("numbers"))

Here we have to translate two times the string `"number"'. Even if
you do not speak a language beside English it might be possible to
recognize that the two words have a different meaning. In German the
first appearance has to be translated to `"Anzahl"' and the second to
`"Zahl"'.

Now you can say that this example is really esoteric. And you are
right! This is exactly how we felt about this problem and decide that
it does not weight that much. The solution for the above problem could
be very easy:

printf ("%s %d", gettext ("number:"), number_of_errors)

printf (number_count == 1 ? gettext ("you should see %d number")
: gettext ("you should see %d numbers"),
number_count)

We believe that we can solve all conflicts with this method. If it
is difficult one can also consider changing one of the conflicting
string a little bit. But it is not impossible to overcome.

`catgets' allows same original entry to have different translations,
but `gettext' has another, scalable approach for solving ambiguities of
this kind: *Note Ambiguities::.

File: gettext.info, Node: Using libintl.a, Next: gettext grok, Prev: Comparison, Up: Programmers

11.4 Using libintl.a in own programs
====================================

Starting with version 0.9.4 the library `libintl.h' should be
self-contained. I.e., you can use it in your own programs without
providing additional functions. The `Makefile' will put the header and
the library in directories selected using the `$(prefix)'.

File: gettext.info, Node: gettext grok, Next: Temp Programmers, Prev: Using libintl.a, Up: Programmers

11.5 Being a `gettext' grok
===========================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

To fully exploit the functionality of the GNU `gettext' library it
is surely helpful to read the source code. But for those who don't want
to spend that much time in reading the (sometimes complicated) code here
is a list comments:

* Changing the language at runtime

For interactive programs it might be useful to offer a selection
of the used language at runtime. To understand how to do this one
need to know how the used language is determined while executing
the `gettext' function. The method which is presented here only
works correctly with the GNU implementation of the `gettext'
functions.

In the function `dcgettext' at every call the current setting of
the highest priority environment variable is determined and used.
Highest priority means here the following list with decreasing
priority:

1. `LANGUAGE'

2. `LC_ALL'

3. `LC_xxx', according to selected locale category

4. `LANG'

Afterwards the path is constructed using the found value and the
translation file is loaded if available.

What happens now when the value for, say, `LANGUAGE' changes?
According to the process explained above the new value of this
variable is found as soon as the `dcgettext' function is called.
But this also means the (perhaps) different message catalog file
is loaded. In other words: the used language is changed.

But there is one little hook. The code for gcc-2.7.0 and up
provides some optimization. This optimization normally prevents
the calling of the `dcgettext' function as long as no new catalog
is loaded. But if `dcgettext' is not called the program also
cannot find the `LANGUAGE' variable be changed (*note Optimized
gettext::). A solution for this is very easy. Include the
following code in the language switching function.

/* Change language. */
setenv ("LANGUAGE", "fr", 1);

/* Make change known. */
{
extern int _nl_msg_cat_cntr;
++_nl_msg_cat_cntr;
}

The variable `_nl_msg_cat_cntr' is defined in `loadmsgcat.c'. You
don't need to know what this is for. But it can be used to detect
whether a `gettext' implementation is GNU gettext and not non-GNU
system's native gettext implementation.

File: gettext.info, Node: Temp Programmers, Prev: gettext grok, Up: Programmers

11.6 Temporary Notes for the Programmers Chapter
================================================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

* Menu:

* Temp Implementations:: Temporary - Two Possible Implementations
* Temp catgets:: Temporary - About `catgets'
* Temp WSI:: Temporary - Why a single implementation
* Temp Notes:: Temporary - Notes

File: gettext.info, Node: Temp Implementations, Next: Temp catgets, Prev: Temp Programmers, Up: Temp Programmers

11.6.1 Temporary - Two Possible Implementations
-----------------------------------------------

There are two competing methods for language independent messages:
the X/Open `catgets' method, and the Uniforum `gettext' method. The
`catgets' method indexes messages by integers; the `gettext' method
indexes them by their English translations. The `catgets' method has
been around longer and is supported by more vendors. The `gettext'
method is supported by Sun, and it has been heard that the COSE
multi-vendor initiative is supporting it. Neither method is a POSIX
standard; the POSIX.1 committee had a lot of disagreement in this area.

Neither one is in the POSIX standard. There was much disagreement
in the POSIX.1 committee about using the `gettext' routines vs.
`catgets' (XPG). In the end the committee couldn't agree on anything,
so no messaging system was included as part of the standard. I believe
the informative annex of the standard includes the XPG3 messaging
interfaces, "...as an example of a messaging system that has been
implemented..."

They were very careful not to say anywhere that you should use one
set of interfaces over the other. For more on this topic please see
the Programming for Internationalization FAQ.

File: gettext.info, Node: Temp catgets, Next: Temp WSI, Prev: Temp Implementations, Up: Temp Programmers

11.6.2 Temporary - About `catgets'
----------------------------------

There have been a few discussions of late on the use of `catgets' as
a base. I think it important to present both sides of the argument and
hence am opting to play devil's advocate for a little bit.

I'll not deny the fact that `catgets' could have been designed a lot
better. It currently has quite a number of limitations and these have
already been pointed out.

However there is a great deal to be said for consistency and
standardization. A common recurring problem when writing Unix software
is the myriad portability problems across Unix platforms. It seems as
if every Unix vendor had a look at the operating system and found parts
they could improve upon. Undoubtedly, these modifications are probably
innovative and solve real problems. However, software developers have
a hard time keeping up with all these changes across so many platforms.

And this has prompted the Unix vendors to begin to standardize their
systems. Hence the impetus for Spec1170. Every major Unix vendor has
committed to supporting this standard and every Unix software developer
waits with glee the day they can write software to this standard and
simply recompile (without having to use autoconf) across different
platforms.

As I understand it, Spec1170 is roughly based upon version 4 of the
X/Open Portability Guidelines (XPG4). Because `catgets' and friends
are defined in XPG4, I'm led to believe that `catgets' is a part of
Spec1170 and hence will become a standardized component of all Unix
systems.

File: gettext.info, Node: Temp WSI, Next: Temp Notes, Prev: Temp catgets, Up: Temp Programmers

11.6.3 Temporary - Why a single implementation
----------------------------------------------

Now it seems kind of wasteful to me to have two different systems
installed for accessing message catalogs. If we do want to remedy
`catgets' deficiencies why don't we try to expand `catgets' (in a
compatible manner) rather than implement an entirely new system.
Otherwise, we'll end up with two message catalog access systems
installed with an operating system - one set of routines for packages
using GNU `gettext' for their internationalization, and another set of
routines (catgets) for all other software. Bloated?

Supposing another catalog access system is implemented. Which do we
recommend? At least for Linux, we need to attract as many software
developers as possible. Hence we need to make it as easy for them to
port their software as possible. Which means supporting `catgets'. We
will be implementing the `libintl' code within our `libc', but does
this mean we also have to incorporate another message catalog access
scheme within our `libc' as well? And what about people who are going
to be using the `libintl' + non-`catgets' routines. When they port
their software to other platforms, they're now going to have to include
the front-end (`libintl') code plus the back-end code (the non-`catgets'
access routines) with their software instead of just including the
`libintl' code with their software.

Message catalog support is however only the tip of the iceberg.
What about the data for the other locale categories? They also have a
number of deficiencies. Are we going to abandon them as well and
develop another duplicate set of routines (should `libintl' expand
beyond message catalog support)?

Like many parts of Unix that can be improved upon, we're stuck with
balancing compatibility with the past with useful improvements and
innovations for the future.

File: gettext.info, Node: Temp Notes, Prev: Temp WSI, Up: Temp Programmers

11.6.4 Temporary - Notes
------------------------

X/Open agreed very late on the standard form so that many
implementations differ from the final form. Both of my system (old
Linux catgets and Ultrix-4) have a strange variation.

OK. After incorporating the last changes I have to spend some time
on making the GNU/Linux `libc' `gettext' functions. So in future
Solaris is not the only system having `gettext'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Translators, Next: Maintainers, Prev: Programmers, Up: Top

12 The Translator's View
************************

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Trans Intro 0, Next: Trans Intro 1, Prev: Translators, Up: Translators

12.1 Introduction 0
===================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

Free software is going international! The Translation Project is a
way to get maintainers, translators and users all together, so free
software will gradually become able to speak many native languages.

The GNU `gettext' tool set contains _everything_ maintainers need
for internationalizing their packages for messages. It also contains
quite useful tools for helping translators at localizing messages to
their native language, once a package has already been
internationalized.

To achieve the Translation Project, we need many interested people
who like their own language and write it well, and who are also able to
synergize with other translators speaking the same language. If you'd
like to volunteer to _work_ at translating messages, please send mail
to your translating team.

Each team has its own mailing list, courtesy of Linux International.
You may reach your translating team at the address `LL@li.org',
replacing LL by the two-letter ISO 639 code for your language.
Language codes are _not_ the same as country codes given in ISO 3166.
The following translating teams exist:

Chinese `zh', Czech `cs', Danish `da', Dutch `nl', Esperanto `eo',
Finnish `fi', French `fr', Irish `ga', German `de', Greek `el',
Italian `it', Japanese `ja', Indonesian `in', Norwegian `no',
Polish `pl', Portuguese `pt', Russian `ru', Spanish `es', Swedish
`sv' and Turkish `tr'.

For example, you may reach the Chinese translating team by writing to
`zh@li.org'. When you become a member of the translating team for your
own language, you may subscribe to its list. For example, Swedish
people can send a message to `sv-request@li.org', having this message
body:

Keep in mind that team members should be interested in _working_ at
translations, or at solving translational difficulties, rather than
merely lurking around. If your team does not exist yet and you want to
start one, please write to `coordinator@translationproject.org'; you
will then reach the coordinator for all translator teams.

A handful of GNU packages have already been adapted and provided
with message translations for several languages. Translation teams
have begun to organize, using these packages as a starting point. But
there are many more packages and many languages for which we have no
volunteer translators. If you would like to volunteer to work at
translating messages, please send mail to
`coordinator@translationproject.org' indicating what language(s) you
can work on.

File: gettext.info, Node: Trans Intro 1, Next: Discussions, Prev: Trans Intro 0, Up: Translators

12.2 Introduction 1
===================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

This is now official, GNU is going international! Here is the
announcement submitted for the January 1995 GNU Bulletin:

A handful of GNU packages have already been adapted and provided
with message translations for several languages. Translation
teams have begun to organize, using these packages as a starting
point. But there are many more packages and many languages for
which we have no volunteer translators. If you'd like to
volunteer to work at translating messages, please send mail to
`coordinator@translationproject.org' indicating what language(s)
you can work on.

This document should answer many questions for those who are curious
about the process or would like to contribute. Please at least skim
over it, hoping to cut down a little of the high volume of e-mail
generated by this collective effort towards internationalization of
free software.

Most free programming which is widely shared is done in English, and
currently, English is used as the main communicating language between
national communities collaborating to free software. This very document
is written in English. This will not change in the foreseeable future.

However, there is a strong appetite from national communities for
having more software able to write using national language and habits,
and there is an on-going effort to modify free software in such a way
that it becomes able to do so. The experiments driven so far raised an
enthusiastic response from pretesters, so we believe that
internationalization of free software is dedicated to succeed.

For suggestion clarifications, additions or corrections to this
document, please e-mail to `coordinator@translationproject.org'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Discussions, Next: Organization, Prev: Trans Intro 1, Up: Translators

12.3 Discussions
================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

Facing this internationalization effort, a few users expressed their
concerns. Some of these doubts are presented and discussed, here.

* Smaller groups

Some languages are not spoken by a very large number of people, so
people speaking them sometimes consider that there may not be all
that much demand such versions of free software packages.
Moreover, many people being _into computers_, in some countries,
generally seem to prefer English versions of their software.

On the other end, people might enjoy their own language a lot, and
be very motivated at providing to themselves the pleasure of
having their beloved free software speaking their mother tongue.
They do themselves a personal favor, and do not pay that much
attention to the number of people benefiting of their work.

* Misinterpretation

Other users are shy to push forward their own language, seeing in
this some kind of misplaced propaganda. Someone thought there
must be some users of the language over the networks pestering
other people with it.

But any spoken language is worth localization, because there are
people behind the language for whom the language is important and
dear to their hearts.

* Odd translations

The biggest problem is to find the right translations so that
everybody can understand the messages. Translations are usually a
little odd. Some people get used to English, to the extent they
may find translations into their own language "rather pushy,
obnoxious and sometimes even hilarious." As a French speaking
man, I have the experience of those instruction manuals for goods,
so poorly translated in French in Korea or Taiwan...

The fact is that we sometimes have to create a kind of national
computer culture, and this is not easy without the collaboration of
many people liking their mother tongue. This is why translations
are better achieved by people knowing and loving their own
language, and ready to work together at improving the results they
obtain.

* Dependencies over the GPL or LGPL

Some people wonder if using GNU `gettext' necessarily brings their
package under the protective wing of the GNU General Public
License or the GNU Library General Public License, when they do
not want to make their program free, or want other kinds of
freedom. The simplest answer is "normally not".

The `gettext-runtime' part of GNU `gettext', i.e. the contents of
`libintl', is covered by the GNU Library General Public License.
The `gettext-tools' part of GNU `gettext', i.e. the rest of the
GNU `gettext' package, is covered by the GNU General Public
License.

The mere marking of localizable strings in a package, or
conditional inclusion of a few lines for initialization, is not
really including GPL'ed or LGPL'ed code. However, since the
localization routines in `libintl' are under the LGPL, the LGPL
needs to be considered. It gives the right to distribute the
complete unmodified source of `libintl' even with non-free
programs. It also gives the right to use `libintl' as a shared
library, even for non-free programs. But it gives the right to
use `libintl' as a static library or to incorporate `libintl' into
another library only to free software.

File: gettext.info, Node: Organization, Next: Information Flow, Prev: Discussions, Up: Translators

12.4 Organization
=================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

On a larger scale, the true solution would be to organize some kind
of fairly precise set up in which volunteers could participate. I gave
some thought to this idea lately, and realize there will be some touchy
points. I thought of writing to Richard Stallman to launch such a
project, but feel it might be good to shake out the ideas between
ourselves first. Most probably that Linux International has some
experience in the field already, or would like to orchestrate the
volunteer work, maybe. Food for thought, in any case!

I guess we have to setup something early, somehow, that will help
many possible contributors of the same language to interlock and avoid
work duplication, and further be put in contact for solving together
problems particular to their tongue (in most languages, there are many
difficulties peculiar to translating technical English). My Swedish
contributor acknowledged these difficulties, and I'm well aware of them
for French.

This is surely not a technical issue, but we should manage so the
effort of locale contributors be maximally useful, despite the national
team layer interface between contributors and maintainers.

The Translation Project needs some setup for coordinating language
coordinators. Localizing evolving programs will surely become a
permanent and continuous activity in the free software community, once
well started. The setup should be minimally completed and tested
before GNU `gettext' becomes an official reality. The e-mail address
`coordinator@translationproject.org' has been set up for receiving
offers from volunteers and general e-mail on these topics. This address
reaches the Translation Project coordinator.

* Menu:

* Central Coordination:: Central Coordination
* National Teams:: National Teams
* Mailing Lists:: Mailing Lists

File: gettext.info, Node: Central Coordination, Next: National Teams, Prev: Organization, Up: Organization

12.4.1 Central Coordination
---------------------------

I also think GNU will need sooner than it thinks, that someone set up
a way to organize and coordinate these groups. Some kind of group of
groups. My opinion is that it would be good that GNU delegates this
task to a small group of collaborating volunteers, shortly. Perhaps in
`gnu.announce' a list of this national committee's can be published.

My role as coordinator would simply be to refer to Ulrich any German
speaking volunteer interested to localization of free software
packages, and maybe helping national groups to initially organize,
while maintaining national registries for until national groups are
ready to take over. In fact, the coordinator should ease volunteers to
get in contact with one another for creating national teams, which
should then select one coordinator per language, or country
(regionalized language). If well done, the coordination should be
useful without being an overwhelming task, the time to put delegations
in place.

File: gettext.info, Node: National Teams, Next: Mailing Lists, Prev: Central Coordination, Up: Organization

12.4.2 National Teams
---------------------

I suggest we look for volunteer coordinators/editors for individual
languages. These people will scan contributions of translation files
for various programs, for their own languages, and will ensure high and
uniform standards of diction.

From my current experience with other people in these days, those who
provide localizations are very enthusiastic about the process, and are
more interested in the localization process than in the program they
localize, and want to do many programs, not just one. This seems to
confirm that having a coordinator/editor for each language is a good
idea.

We need to choose someone who is good at writing clear and concise
prose in the language in question. That is hard--we can't check it
ourselves. So we need to ask a few people to judge each others'
writing and select the one who is best.

I announce my prerelease to a few dozen people, and you would not
believe all the discussions it generated already. I shudder to think
what will happen when this will be launched, for true, officially,
world wide. Who am I to arbitrate between two Czekolsovak users
contradicting each other, for example?

I assume that your German is not much better than my French so that
I would not be able to judge about these formulations. What I would
suggest is that for each language there is a group for people who
maintain the PO files and judge about changes. I suspect there will be
cultural differences between how such groups of people will behave.
Some will have relaxed ways, reach consensus easily, and have anyone of
the group relate to the maintainers, while others will fight to death,
organize heavy administrations up to national standards, and use strict
channels.

The German team is putting out a good example. Right now, they are
maybe half a dozen people revising translations of each other and
discussing the linguistic issues. I do not even have all the names.
Ulrich Drepper is taking care of coordinating the German team. He
subscribed to all my pretest lists, so I do not even have to warn him
specifically of incoming releases.

I'm sure, that is a good idea to get teams for each language working
on translations. That will make the translations better and more
consistent.

* Menu:

* Sub-Cultures:: Sub-Cultures
* Organizational Ideas:: Organizational Ideas

File: gettext.info, Node: Sub-Cultures, Next: Organizational Ideas, Prev: National Teams, Up: National Teams

12.4.2.1 Sub-Cultures
.....................

Taking French for example, there are a few sub-cultures around
computers which developed diverging vocabularies. Picking volunteers
here and there without addressing this problem in an organized way,
soon in the project, might produce a distasteful mix of
internationalized programs, and possibly trigger endless quarrels among
those who really care.

Keeping some kind of unity in the way French localization of
internationalized programs is achieved is a difficult (and delicate)
job. Knowing the latin character of French people (:-), if we take this
the wrong way, we could end up nowhere, or spoil a lot of energies.
Maybe we should begin to address this problem seriously _before_ GNU
`gettext' become officially published. And I suspect that this means
soon!

File: gettext.info, Node: Organizational Ideas, Prev: Sub-Cultures, Up: National Teams

12.4.2.2 Organizational Ideas
.............................

I expect the next big changes after the official release. Please
note that I use the German translation of the short GPL message. We
need to set a few good examples before the localization goes out for
true in the free software community. Here are a few points to discuss:

* Each group should have one FTP server (at least one master).

* The files on the server should reflect the latest version (of
course!) and it should also contain a RCS directory with the
corresponding archives (I don't have this now).

* There should also be a ChangeLog file (this is more useful than the
RCS archive but can be generated automatically from the later by
Emacs).

* A "core group" should judge about questionable changes (for now
this group consists solely by me but I ask some others
occasionally; this also seems to work).

File: gettext.info, Node: Mailing Lists, Prev: National Teams, Up: Organization

12.4.3 Mailing Lists
--------------------

If we get any inquiries about GNU `gettext', send them on to:

`coordinator@translationproject.org'

The `*-pretest' lists are quite useful to me, maybe the idea could
be generalized to many GNU, and non-GNU packages. But each maintainer
his/her way!

Franc,ois, we have a mechanism in place here at `gnu.ai.mit.edu' to
track teams, support mailing lists for them and log members. We have a
slight preference that you use it. If this is OK with you, I can get
you clued in.

Things are changing! A few years ago, when Daniel Fekete and I
asked for a mailing list for GNU localization, nested at the FSF, we
were politely invited to organize it anywhere else, and so did we. For
communicating with my pretesters, I later made a handful of mailing
lists located at iro.umontreal.ca and administrated by `majordomo'.
These lists have been _very_ dependable so far...

I suspect that the German team will organize itself a mailing list
located in Germany, and so forth for other countries. But before they
organize for true, it could surely be useful to offer mailing lists
located at the FSF to each national team. So yes, please explain me
how I should proceed to create and handle them.

We should create temporary mailing lists, one per country, to help
people organize. Temporary, because once regrouped and structured, it
would be fair the volunteers from country bring back _their_ list in
there and manage it as they want. My feeling is that, in the long run,
each team should run its own list, from within their country. There
also should be some central list to which all teams could subscribe as
they see fit, as long as each team is represented in it.

File: gettext.info, Node: Information Flow, Next: Prioritizing messages, Prev: Organization, Up: Translators

12.5 Information Flow
=====================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

There will surely be some discussion about this messages after the
packages are finally released. If people now send you some proposals
for better messages, how do you proceed? Jim, please note that right
now, as I put forward nearly a dozen of localizable programs, I receive
both the translations and the coordination concerns about them.

If I put one of my things to pretest, Ulrich receives the
announcement and passes it on to the German team, who make last minute
revisions. Then he submits the translation files to me _as the
maintainer_. For free packages I do not maintain, I would not even
hear about it. This scheme could be made to work for the whole
Translation Project, I think. For security reasons, maybe Ulrich
(national coordinators, in fact) should update central registry kept at
the Translation Project (Jim, me, or Len's recruits) once in a while.

In December/January, I was aggressively ready to internationalize
all of GNU, giving myself the duty of one small GNU package per week or
so, taking many weeks or months for bigger packages. But it does not
work this way. I first did all the things I'm responsible for. I've
nothing against some missionary work on other maintainers, but I'm also
loosing a lot of energy over it--same debates over again.

And when the first localized packages are released we'll get a lot of
responses about ugly translations :-). Surely, and we need to have
beforehand a fairly good idea about how to handle the information flow
between the national teams and the package maintainers.

Please start saving somewhere a quick history of each PO file. I
know for sure that the file format will change, allowing for comments.
It would be nice that each file has a kind of log, and references for
those who want to submit comments or gripes, or otherwise contribute.
I sent a proposal for a fast and flexible format, but it is not
receiving acceptance yet by the GNU deciders. I'll tell you when I
have more information about this.

File: gettext.info, Node: Prioritizing messages, Prev: Information Flow, Up: Translators

12.6 Prioritizing messages: How to determine which messages to translate first
==============================================================================

A translator sometimes has only a limited amount of time per week to
spend on a package, and some packages have quite large message catalogs
(over 1000 messages). Therefore she wishes to translate the messages
first that are the most visible to the user, or that occur most
frequently. This section describes how to determine these "most
urgent" messages. It also applies to determine the "next most urgent"
messages after the message catalog has already been partially
translated.

In a first step, she uses the programs like a user would do. While
she does this, the GNU `gettext' library logs into a file the not yet
translated messages for which a translation was requested from the
program.

In a second step, she uses the PO mode to translate precisely this
set of messages.

Here a more details. The GNU `libintl' library (but not the
corresponding functions in GNU `libc') supports an environment variable
`GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED'. The GNU `libintl' library will log into
this file the messages for which `gettext()' and related functions
couldn't find the translation. If the file doesn't exist, it will be
created as needed. On systems with GNU `libc' a shared library
`preloadable_libintl.so' is provided that can be used with the ELF
`LD_PRELOAD' mechanism.

So, in the first step, the translator uses these commands on systems
with GNU `libc':

$ LD_PRELOAD=/usr/local/lib/preloadable_libintl.so
$ export LD_PRELOAD
$ GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED=$HOME/gettextlogused
$ export GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED

and these commands on other systems:

$ GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED=$HOME/gettextlogused
$ export GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED

Then she uses and peruses the programs. (It is a good and
recommended practice to use the programs for which you provide
translations: it gives you the needed context.) When done, she removes
the environment variables:

$ unset LD_PRELOAD
$ unset GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED

The second step starts with removing duplicates:

$ msguniq $HOME/gettextlogused > missing.po

The result is a PO file, but needs some preprocessing before a PO
file editor can be used with it. First, it is a multi-domain PO file,
containing messages from many translation domains. Second, it lacks
all translator comments and source references. Here is how to get a
list of the affected translation domains:

$ sed -n -e 's,^domain "$.*$"$,\1,p' < missing.po | sort | uniq

Then the translator can handle the domains one by one. For
simplicity, let's use environment variables to denote the language,
domain and source package.

$ lang=nl # your language
$ domain=coreutils # the name of the domain to be handled
$ package=/usr/src/gnu/coreutils-4.5.4 # the package where it comes from

She takes the latest copy of `$lang.po' from the Translation Project,
or from the package (in most cases, `$package/po/$lang.po'), or creates
a fresh one if she's the first translator (see *Note Creating::). She
then uses the following commands to mark the not urgent messages as
"obsolete". (This doesn't mean that these messages - translated and
untranslated ones - will go away. It simply means that the PO file
editor will ignore them in the following editing session.)

$ msggrep --domain=$domain missing.po | grep -v '^domain' \
> $domain-missing.po
$ msgattrib --set-obsolete --ignore-file $domain-missing.po $domain.$lang.po \
> $domain.$lang-urgent.po

The she translates `$domain.$lang-urgent.po' by use of a PO file
editor (*note Editing::). (FIXME: I don't know whether `KBabel' and
`gtranslator' also preserve obsolete messages, as they should.)
Finally she restores the not urgent messages (with their earlier
translations, for those which were already translated) through this
command:

$ msgmerge --no-fuzzy-matching $domain.$lang-urgent.po $package/po/$domain.pot \
> $domain.$lang.po

Then she can submit `$domain.$lang.po' and proceed to the next
domain.

File: gettext.info, Node: Maintainers, Next: Installers, Prev: Translators, Up: Top

13 The Maintainer's View
************************

The maintainer of a package has many responsibilities. One of them
is ensuring that the package will install easily on many platforms, and
that the magic we described earlier (*note Users::) will work for
installers and end users.

Of course, there are many possible ways by which GNU `gettext' might
be integrated in a distribution, and this chapter does not cover them
in all generality. Instead, it details one possible approach which is
especially adequate for many free software distributions following GNU
standards, or even better, Gnits standards, because GNU `gettext' is
purposely for helping the internationalization of the whole GNU
project, and as many other good free packages as possible. So, the
maintainer's view presented here presumes that the package already has
a `configure.ac' file and uses GNU Autoconf.

Nevertheless, GNU `gettext' may surely be useful for free packages
not following GNU standards and conventions, but the maintainers of such
packages might have to show imagination and initiative in organizing
their distributions so `gettext' work for them in all situations.
There are surely many, out there.

Even if `gettext' methods are now stabilizing, slight adjustments
might be needed between successive `gettext' versions, so you should
ideally revise this chapter in subsequent releases, looking for changes.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Flat and Non-Flat, Next: Prerequisites, Prev: Maintainers, Up: Maintainers

13.1 Flat or Non-Flat Directory Structures
==========================================

Some free software packages are distributed as `tar' files which
unpack in a single directory, these are said to be "flat" distributions.
Other free software packages have a one level hierarchy of
subdirectories, using for example a subdirectory named `doc/' for the
Texinfo manual and man pages, another called `lib/' for holding
functions meant to replace or complement C libraries, and a
subdirectory `src/' for holding the proper sources for the package.
These other distributions are said to be "non-flat".

We cannot say much about flat distributions. A flat directory
structure has the disadvantage of increasing the difficulty of updating
to a new version of GNU `gettext'. Also, if you have many PO files,
this could somewhat pollute your single directory. Also, GNU
`gettext''s libintl sources consist of C sources, shell scripts, `sed'
scripts and complicated Makefile rules, which don't fit well into an
existing flat structure. For these reasons, we recommend to use
non-flat approach in this case as well.

Maybe because GNU `gettext' itself has a non-flat structure, we have
more experience with this approach, and this is what will be described
in the remaining of this chapter. Some maintainers might use this as
an opportunity to unflatten their package structure.

File: gettext.info, Node: Prerequisites, Next: gettextize Invocation, Prev: Flat and Non-Flat, Up: Maintainers

13.2 Prerequisite Works
=======================

There are some works which are required for using GNU `gettext' in
one of your package. These works have some kind of generality that
escape the point by point descriptions used in the remainder of this
chapter. So, we describe them here.

* Before attempting to use `gettextize' you should install some
other packages first. Ensure that recent versions of GNU `m4',
GNU Autoconf and GNU `gettext' are already installed at your site,
and if not, proceed to do this first. If you get to install these
things, beware that GNU `m4' must be fully installed before GNU
Autoconf is even _configured_.

To further ease the task of a package maintainer the `automake'
package was designed and implemented. GNU `gettext' now uses this
tool and the `Makefile's in the `intl/' and `po/' therefore know
about all the goals necessary for using `automake' and `libintl'
in one project.

Those four packages are only needed by you, as a maintainer; the
installers of your own package and end users do not really need
any of GNU `m4', GNU Autoconf, GNU `gettext', or GNU `automake'
for successfully installing and running your package, with messages
properly translated. But this is not completely true if you
provide internationalized shell scripts within your own package:
GNU `gettext' shall then be installed at the user site if the end
users want to see the translation of shell script messages.

* Your package should use Autoconf and have a `configure.ac' or
`configure.in' file. If it does not, you have to learn how. The
Autoconf documentation is quite well written, it is a good idea
that you print it and get familiar with it.

* Your C sources should have already been modified according to
instructions given earlier in this manual. *Note Sources::.

* Your `po/' directory should receive all PO files submitted to you
by the translator teams, each having `LL.po' as a name. This is
not usually easy to get translation work done before your package
gets internationalized and available! Since the cycle has to
start somewhere, the easiest for the maintainer is to start with
absolutely no PO files, and wait until various translator teams
get interested in your package, and submit PO files.

It is worth adding here a few words about how the maintainer should
ideally behave with PO files submissions. As a maintainer, your role is
to authenticate the origin of the submission as being the representative
of the appropriate translating teams of the Translation Project (forward
the submission to `coordinator@translationproject.org' in case of
doubt), to ensure that the PO file format is not severely broken and
does not prevent successful installation, and for the rest, to merely
put these PO files in `po/' for distribution.

As a maintainer, you do not have to take on your shoulders the
responsibility of checking if the translations are adequate or
complete, and should avoid diving into linguistic matters. Translation
teams drive themselves and are fully responsible of their linguistic
choices for the Translation Project. Keep in mind that translator
teams are _not_ driven by maintainers. You can help by carefully
redirecting all communications and reports from users about linguistic
matters to the appropriate translation team, or explain users how to
reach or join their team. The simplest might be to send them the
`ABOUT-NLS' file.

Maintainers should _never ever_ apply PO file bug reports
themselves, short-cutting translation teams. If some translator has
difficulty to get some of her points through her team, it should not be
an option for her to directly negotiate translations with maintainers.
Teams ought to settle their problems themselves, if any. If you, as a
maintainer, ever think there is a real problem with a team, please
never try to _solve_ a team's problem on your own.

File: gettext.info, Node: gettextize Invocation, Next: Adjusting Files, Prev: Prerequisites, Up: Maintainers

13.3 Invoking the `gettextize' Program
======================================

The `gettextize' program is an interactive tool that helps the
maintainer of a package internationalized through GNU `gettext'. It is
used for two purposes:

* As a wizard, when a package is modified to use GNU `gettext' for
the first time.

* As a migration tool, for upgrading the GNU `gettext' support in a
package from a previous to a newer version of GNU `gettext'.

This program performs the following tasks:

* It copies into the package some files that are consistently and
identically needed in every package internationalized through GNU
`gettext'.

* It performs as many of the tasks mentioned in the next section
*Note Adjusting Files:: as can be performed automatically.

* It removes obsolete files and idioms used for previous GNU
`gettext' versions to the form recommended for the current GNU
`gettext' version.

* It prints a summary of the tasks that ought to be done manually
and could not be done automatically by `gettextize'.

It can be invoked as follows:

gettextize [ OPTION... ] [ DIRECTORY ]

and accepts the following options:

`-f'
`--force'
Force replacement of files which already exist.

`--intl'
Install the libintl sources in a subdirectory named `intl/'. This
libintl will be used to provide internationalization on systems
that don't have GNU libintl installed. If this option is omitted,
the call to `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' in `configure.ac' should read:
`AM_GNU_GETTEXT([external])', and internationalization will not be
enabled on systems lacking GNU gettext.

`--po-dir=DIR'
Specify a directory containing PO files. Such a directory
contains the translations into various languages of a particular
POT file. This option can be specified multiple times, once for
each translation domain. If it is not specified, the directory
named `po/' is updated.

`--no-changelog'
Don't update or create ChangeLog files. By default, `gettextize'
logs all changes (file additions, modifications and removals) in a
file called `ChangeLog' in each affected directory.

`--symlink'
Make symbolic links instead of copying the needed files. This can
be useful to save a few kilobytes of disk space, but it requires
extra effort to create self-contained tarballs, it may disturb
some mechanism the maintainer applies to the sources, and it is
likely to introduce bugs when a newer version of `gettext' is
installed on the system.

`-n'
`--dry-run'
Print modifications but don't perform them. All actions that
`gettextize' would normally execute are inhibited and instead only
listed on standard output.

`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`--version'
Output version information and exit.

If DIRECTORY is given, this is the top level directory of a package
to prepare for using GNU `gettext'. If not given, it is assumed that
the current directory is the top level directory of such a package.

The program `gettextize' provides the following files. However, no
existing file will be replaced unless the option `--force' (`-f') is
specified.

1. The `ABOUT-NLS' file is copied in the main directory of your
package, the one being at the top level. This file gives the main
indications about how to install and use the Native Language
Support features of your program. You might elect to use a more
recent copy of this `ABOUT-NLS' file than the one provided through
`gettextize', if you have one handy. You may also fetch a more
recent copy of file `ABOUT-NLS' from Translation Project sites,
and from most GNU archive sites.

2. A `po/' directory is created for eventually holding all
translation files, but initially only containing the file
`po/Makefile.in.in' from the GNU `gettext' distribution (beware
the double `.in' in the file name) and a few auxiliary files. If
the `po/' directory already exists, it will be preserved along
with the files it contains, and only `Makefile.in.in' and the
auxiliary files will be overwritten.

If `--po-dir' has been specified, this holds for every directory
specified through `--po-dir', instead of `po/'.

3. Only if `--intl' has been specified: A `intl/' directory is
created and filled with most of the files originally in the
`intl/' directory of the GNU `gettext' distribution. Also, if
option `--force' (`-f') is given, the `intl/' directory is emptied
first.

4. The file `config.rpath' is copied into the directory containing
configuration support files. It is needed by the `AM_GNU_GETTEXT'
autoconf macro.

5. Only if the project is using GNU `automake': A set of `autoconf'
macro files is copied into the package's `autoconf' macro
repository, usually in a directory called `m4/'.

If your site support symbolic links, `gettextize' will not actually
copy the files into your package, but establish symbolic links instead.
This avoids duplicating the disk space needed in all packages. Merely
using the `-h' option while creating the `tar' archive of your
distribution will resolve each link by an actual copy in the
distribution archive. So, to insist, you really should use `-h' option
with `tar' within your `dist' goal of your main `Makefile.in'.

Furthermore, `gettextize' will update all `Makefile.am' files in
each affected directory, as well as the top level `configure.ac' or
`configure.in' file.

It is interesting to understand that most new files for supporting
GNU `gettext' facilities in one package go in `intl/', `po/' and `m4/'
subdirectories. One distinction between `intl/' and the two other
directories is that `intl/' is meant to be completely identical in all
packages using GNU `gettext', while the other directories will mostly
contain package dependent files.

The `gettextize' program makes backup files for all files it
replaces or changes, and also write ChangeLog entries about these
changes. This way, the careful maintainer can check after running
`gettextize' whether its changes are acceptable to him, and possibly
adjust them. An exception to this rule is the `intl/' directory, which
is added or replaced or removed as a whole.

It is important to understand that `gettextize' can not do the
entire job of adapting a package for using GNU `gettext'. The amount
of remaining work depends on whether the package uses GNU `automake' or
not. But in any case, the maintainer should still read the section
*Note Adjusting Files:: after invoking `gettextize'.

In particular, if after using `gettexize', you get an error
`AC_COMPILE_IFELSE was called before AC_GNU_SOURCE' or `AC_RUN_IFELSE
was called before AC_GNU_SOURCE', you can fix it by modifying
`configure.ac', as described in *Note configure.ac::.

It is also important to understand that `gettextize' is not part of
the GNU build system, in the sense that it should not be invoked
automatically, and not be invoked by someone who doesn't assume the
responsibilities of a package maintainer. For the latter purpose, a
separate tool is provided, see *Note autopoint Invocation::.

File: gettext.info, Node: Adjusting Files, Next: autoconf macros, Prev: gettextize Invocation, Up: Maintainers

13.4 Files You Must Create or Alter
===================================

Besides files which are automatically added through `gettextize',
there are many files needing revision for properly interacting with GNU
`gettext'. If you are closely following GNU standards for Makefile
engineering and auto-configuration, the adaptations should be easier to
achieve. Here is a point by point description of the changes needed in
each.

So, here comes a list of files, each one followed by a description of
all alterations it needs. Many examples are taken out from the GNU
`gettext' 0.17 distribution itself, or from the GNU `hello'
distribution (`http://www.franken.de/users/gnu/ke/hello' or
`http://www.gnu.franken.de/ke/hello/') You may indeed refer to the
source code of the GNU `gettext' and GNU `hello' packages, as they are
intended to be good examples for using GNU gettext functionality.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: po/POTFILES.in, Next: po/LINGUAS, Prev: Adjusting Files, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.1 `POTFILES.in' in `po/'
-----------------------------

The `po/' directory should receive a file named `POTFILES.in'. This
file tells which files, among all program sources, have marked strings
needing translation. Here is an example of such a file:

# List of source files containing translatable strings.
# Copyright (C) 1995 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

# Common library files
lib/error.c
lib/getopt.c
lib/xmalloc.c

# Package source files
src/gettext.c
src/msgfmt.c
src/xgettext.c

Hash-marked comments and white lines are ignored. All other lines list
those source files containing strings marked for translation (*note
Mark Keywords::), in a notation relative to the top level of your whole
distribution, rather than the location of the `POTFILES.in' file itself.

When a C file is automatically generated by a tool, like `flex' or
`bison', that doesn't introduce translatable strings by itself, it is
recommended to list in `po/POTFILES.in' the real source file (ending in
`.l' in the case of `flex', or in `.y' in the case of `bison'), not the
generated C file.

File: gettext.info, Node: po/LINGUAS, Next: po/Makevars, Prev: po/POTFILES.in, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.2 `LINGUAS' in `po/'
-------------------------

The `po/' directory should also receive a file named `LINGUAS'.
This file contains the list of available translations. It is a
whitespace separated list. Hash-marked comments and white lines are
ignored. Here is an example file:

# Set of available languages.
de fr

This example means that German and French PO files are available, so
that these languages are currently supported by your package. If you
want to further restrict, at installation time, the set of installed
languages, this should not be done by modifying the `LINGUAS' file, but
rather by using the `LINGUAS' environment variable (*note Installers::).

It is recommended that you add the "languages" `en@quot' and
`en@boldquot' to the `LINGUAS' file. `en@quot' is a variant of English
message catalogs (`en') which uses real quotation marks instead of the
ugly looking asymmetric ASCII substitutes ``' and `''. `en@boldquot'
is a variant of `en@quot' that additionally outputs quoted pieces of
text in a bold font, when used in a terminal emulator which supports
the VT100 escape sequences (such as `xterm' or the Linux console, but
not Emacs in `M-x shell' mode).

These extra message catalogs `en@quot' and `en@boldquot' are
constructed automatically, not by translators; to support them, you
need the files `Rules-quot', `quot.sed', `boldquot.sed',
`en@quot.header', `en@boldquot.header', `insert-header.sin' in the
`po/' directory. You can copy them from GNU gettext's `po/' directory;
they are also installed by running `gettextize'.

File: gettext.info, Node: po/Makevars, Next: po/Rules-*, Prev: po/LINGUAS, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.3 `Makevars' in `po/'
--------------------------

The `po/' directory also has a file named `Makevars'. It contains
variables that are specific to your project. `po/Makevars' gets
inserted into the `po/Makefile' when the latter is created. The
variables thus take effect when the POT file is created or updated, and
when the message catalogs get installed.

The first three variables can be left unmodified if your package has
a single message domain and, accordingly, a single `po/' directory.
Only packages which have multiple `po/' directories at different
locations need to adjust the three first variables defined in
`Makevars'.

As an alternative to the `XGETTEXT_OPTIONS' variables, it is also
possible to specify `xgettext' options through the `AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION'
autoconf macro. See *Note AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION::.

File: gettext.info, Node: po/Rules-*, Next: configure.ac, Prev: po/Makevars, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.4 Extending `Makefile' in `po/'
------------------------------------

All files called `Rules-*' in the `po/' directory get appended to
the `po/Makefile' when it is created. They present an opportunity to
add rules for special PO files to the Makefile, without needing to mess
with `po/Makefile.in.in'.

GNU gettext comes with a `Rules-quot' file, containing rules for
building catalogs `en@quot.po' and `en@boldquot.po'. The effect of
`en@quot.po' is that people who set their `LANGUAGE' environment
variable to `en@quot' will get messages with proper looking symmetric
Unicode quotation marks instead of abusing the ASCII grave accent and
the ASCII apostrophe for indicating quotations. To enable this
catalog, simply add `en@quot' to the `po/LINGUAS' file. The effect of
`en@boldquot.po' is that people who set `LANGUAGE' to `en@boldquot'
will get not only proper quotation marks, but also the quoted text will
be shown in a bold font on terminals and consoles. This catalog is
useful only for command-line programs, not GUI programs. To enable it,
similarly add `en@boldquot' to the `po/LINGUAS' file.

Similarly, you can create rules for building message catalogs for the
`sr@latin' locale - Serbian written with the Latin alphabet - from
those for the `sr' locale - Serbian written with Cyrillic letters. See
*Note msgfilter Invocation::.

File: gettext.info, Node: configure.ac, Next: config.guess, Prev: po/Rules-*, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.5 `configure.ac' at top level
----------------------------------

`configure.ac' or `configure.in' - this is the source from which
`autoconf' generates the `configure' script.

1. Declare the package and version.

This is done by a set of lines like these:

PACKAGE=gettext
VERSION=0.17
AC_DEFINE_UNQUOTED(PACKAGE, "$PACKAGE")
AC_DEFINE_UNQUOTED(VERSION, "$VERSION")
AC_SUBST(PACKAGE)
AC_SUBST(VERSION)

or, if you are using GNU `automake', by a line like this:

AM_INIT_AUTOMAKE(gettext, 0.17)

Of course, you replace `gettext' with the name of your package,
and `0.17' by its version numbers, exactly as they should appear
in the packaged `tar' file name of your distribution
(`gettext-0.17.tar.gz', here).

2. Check for internationalization support.

Here is the main `m4' macro for triggering internationalization
support. Just add this line to `configure.ac':

AM_GNU_GETTEXT

This call is purposely simple, even if it generates a lot of
configure time checking and actions.

If you have suppressed the `intl/' subdirectory by calling
`gettextize' without `--intl' option, this call should read

AM_GNU_GETTEXT([external])

3. Have output files created.

The `AC_OUTPUT' directive, at the end of your `configure.ac' file,
needs to be modified in two ways:

AC_OUTPUT([EXISTING CONFIGURATION FILES intl/Makefile po/Makefile.in],
[EXISTING ADDITIONAL ACTIONS])

The modification to the first argument to `AC_OUTPUT' asks for
substitution in the `intl/' and `po/' directories. Note the `.in'
suffix used for `po/' only. This is because the distributed file
is really `po/Makefile.in.in'.

If you have suppressed the `intl/' subdirectory by calling
`gettextize' without `--intl' option, then you don't need to add
`intl/Makefile' to the `AC_OUTPUT' line.

If, after doing the recommended modifications, a command like
`aclocal -I m4' or `autoconf' or `autoreconf' fails with a trace
similar to this:

configure.ac:44: warning: AC_COMPILE_IFELSE was called before AC_GNU_SOURCE
../../lib/autoconf/specific.m4:335: AC_GNU_SOURCE is expanded from...
m4/lock.m4:224: gl_LOCK is expanded from...
m4/gettext.m4:571: gt_INTL_SUBDIR_CORE is expanded from...
m4/gettext.m4:472: AM_INTL_SUBDIR is expanded from...
m4/gettext.m4:347: AM_GNU_GETTEXT is expanded from...
configure.ac:44: the top level
configure.ac:44: warning: AC_RUN_IFELSE was called before AC_GNU_SOURCE

you need to add an explicit invocation of `AC_GNU_SOURCE' in the
`configure.ac' file - after `AC_PROG_CC' but before `AM_GNU_GETTEXT',
most likely very close to the `AC_PROG_CC' invocation. This is
necessary because of ordering restrictions imposed by GNU autoconf.

File: gettext.info, Node: config.guess, Next: mkinstalldirs, Prev: configure.ac, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.6 `config.guess', `config.sub' at top level
------------------------------------------------

If you haven't suppressed the `intl/' subdirectory, you need to add
the GNU `config.guess' and `config.sub' files to your distribution.
They are needed because the `intl/' directory has platform dependent
support for determining the locale's character encoding and therefore
needs to identify the platform.

You can obtain the newest version of `config.guess' and `config.sub'
from the CVS of the `config' project at `http://savannah.gnu.org/'. The
commands to fetch them are
$ wget 'http://savannah.gnu.org/cgi-bin/viewcvs/*checkout*/config/config/config.guess'
$ wget 'http://savannah.gnu.org/cgi-bin/viewcvs/*checkout*/config/config/config.sub'
Less recent versions are also contained in the GNU `automake' and
GNU `libtool' packages.

Normally, `config.guess' and `config.sub' are put at the top level
of a distribution. But it is also possible to put them in a
subdirectory, altogether with other configuration support files like
`install-sh', `ltconfig', `ltmain.sh' or `missing'. All you need to
do, other than moving the files, is to add the following line to your
`configure.ac'.

AC_CONFIG_AUX_DIR([SUBDIR])

File: gettext.info, Node: mkinstalldirs, Next: aclocal, Prev: config.guess, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.7 `mkinstalldirs' at top level
-----------------------------------

With earlier versions of GNU gettext, you needed to add the GNU
`mkinstalldirs' script to your distribution. This is not needed any
more. You can remove it if you not also using an automake version
older than automake 1.9.

File: gettext.info, Node: aclocal, Next: acconfig, Prev: mkinstalldirs, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.8 `aclocal.m4' at top level
--------------------------------

If you do not have an `aclocal.m4' file in your distribution, the
simplest is to concatenate the files `codeset.m4', `gettext.m4',
`glibc2.m4', `glibc21.m4', `iconv.m4', `intdiv0.m4', `intl.m4',
`intldir.m4', `intlmacosx.m4', `intmax.m4', `inttypes_h.m4',
`inttypes-pri.m4', `lcmessage.m4', `lib-ld.m4', `lib-link.m4',
`lib-prefix.m4', `lock.m4', `longlong.m4', `nls.m4', `po.m4',
`printf-posix.m4', `progtest.m4', `size_max.m4', `stdint_h.m4',
`uintmax_t.m4', `visibility.m4', `wchar_t.m4', `wint_t.m4', `xsize.m4'
from GNU `gettext''s `m4/' directory into a single file. If you have
suppressed the `intl/' directory, only `gettext.m4', `iconv.m4',
`lib-ld.m4', `lib-link.m4', `lib-prefix.m4', `nls.m4', `po.m4',
`progtest.m4' need to be concatenated.

If you are not using GNU `automake' 1.8 or newer, you will need to
add a file `mkdirp.m4' from a newer automake distribution to the list
of files above.

If you already have an `aclocal.m4' file, then you will have to
merge the said macro files into your `aclocal.m4'. Note that if you
are upgrading from a previous release of GNU `gettext', you should most
probably _replace_ the macros (`AM_GNU_GETTEXT', etc.), as they usually
change a little from one release of GNU `gettext' to the next. Their
contents may vary as we get more experience with strange systems out
there.

If you are using GNU `automake' 1.5 or newer, it is enough to put
these macro files into a subdirectory named `m4/' and add the line

ACLOCAL_AMFLAGS = -I m4

to your top level `Makefile.am'.

These macros check for the internationalization support functions
and related informations. Hopefully, once stabilized, these macros
might be integrated in the standard Autoconf set, because this piece of
`m4' code will be the same for all projects using GNU `gettext'.

File: gettext.info, Node: acconfig, Next: config.h.in, Prev: aclocal, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.9 `acconfig.h' at top level
--------------------------------

Earlier GNU `gettext' releases required to put definitions for
`ENABLE_NLS', `HAVE_GETTEXT' and `HAVE_LC_MESSAGES', `HAVE_STPCPY',
`PACKAGE' and `VERSION' into an `acconfig.h' file. This is not needed
any more; you can remove them from your `acconfig.h' file unless your
package uses them independently from the `intl/' directory.

File: gettext.info, Node: config.h.in, Next: Makefile, Prev: acconfig, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.10 `config.h.in' at top level
----------------------------------

The include file template that holds the C macros to be defined by
`configure' is usually called `config.h.in' and may be maintained
either manually or automatically.

If `gettextize' has created an `intl/' directory, this file must be
called `config.h.in' and must be at the top level. If, however, you
have suppressed the `intl/' directory by calling `gettextize' without
`--intl' option, then you can choose the name of this file and its
location freely.

If it is maintained automatically, by use of the `autoheader'
program, you need to do nothing about it. This is the case in
particular if you are using GNU `automake'.

If it is maintained manually, and if `gettextize' has created an
`intl/' directory, you should switch to using `autoheader'. The list
of C macros to be added for the sake of the `intl/' directory is just
too long to be maintained manually; it also changes between different
versions of GNU `gettext'.

If it is maintained manually, and if on the other hand you have
suppressed the `intl/' directory by calling `gettextize' without
`--intl' option, then you can get away by adding the following lines to
`config.h.in':

/* Define to 1 if translation of program messages to the user's
native language is requested. */
#undef ENABLE_NLS

File: gettext.info, Node: Makefile, Next: src/Makefile, Prev: config.h.in, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.11 `Makefile.in' at top level
----------------------------------

Here are a few modifications you need to make to your main, top-level
`Makefile.in' file.

1. Add the following lines near the beginning of your `Makefile.in',
so the `dist:' goal will work properly (as explained further down):

PACKAGE = @PACKAGE@
VERSION = @VERSION@

2. Add file `ABOUT-NLS' to the `DISTFILES' definition, so the file
gets distributed.

3. Wherever you process subdirectories in your `Makefile.in', be sure
you also process the subdirectories `intl' and `po'. Special
rules in the `Makefiles' take care for the case where no
internationalization is wanted.

If you are using Makefiles, either generated by automake, or
hand-written so they carefully follow the GNU coding standards,
the effected goals for which the new subdirectories must be
handled include `installdirs', `install', `uninstall', `clean',
`distclean'.

Here is an example of a canonical order of processing. In this
example, we also define `SUBDIRS' in `Makefile.in' for it to be
further used in the `dist:' goal.

SUBDIRS = doc intl lib src po

Note that you must arrange for `make' to descend into the `intl'
directory before descending into other directories containing code
which make use of the `libintl.h' header file. For this reason,
here we mention `intl' before `lib' and `src'.

4. A delicate point is the `dist:' goal, as both `intl/Makefile' and
`po/Makefile' will later assume that the proper directory has been
set up from the main `Makefile'. Here is an example at what the
`dist:' goal might look like:

distdir = $(PACKAGE)-$(VERSION)
dist: Makefile
rm -fr $(distdir)
mkdir $(distdir)
chmod 777 $(distdir)
for file in $(DISTFILES); do \
ln $$file $(distdir) 2>/dev/null || cp -p $$file $(distdir); \
done
for subdir in $(SUBDIRS); do \
mkdir $(distdir)/$$subdir || exit 1; \
chmod 777 $(distdir)/$$subdir; \
(cd $$subdir && $(MAKE) $@) || exit 1; \
done
tar chozf $(distdir).tar.gz $(distdir)
rm -fr $(distdir)

Note that if you are using GNU `automake', `Makefile.in' is
automatically generated from `Makefile.am', and all needed changes to
`Makefile.am' are already made by running `gettextize'.

File: gettext.info, Node: src/Makefile, Next: lib/gettext.h, Prev: Makefile, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.12 `Makefile.in' in `src/'
-------------------------------

Some of the modifications made in the main `Makefile.in' will also
be needed in the `Makefile.in' from your package sources, which we
assume here to be in the `src/' subdirectory. Here are all the
modifications needed in `src/Makefile.in':

1. In view of the `dist:' goal, you should have these lines near the
beginning of `src/Makefile.in':

PACKAGE = @PACKAGE@
VERSION = @VERSION@

2. If not done already, you should guarantee that `top_srcdir' gets
defined. This will serve for `cpp' include files. Just add the
line:

top_srcdir = @top_srcdir@

3. You might also want to define `subdir' as `src', later allowing
for almost uniform `dist:' goals in all your `Makefile.in'. At
list, the `dist:' goal below assume that you used:

subdir = src

4. The `main' function of your program will normally call
`bindtextdomain' (see *note Triggering::), like this:

bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
textdomain (PACKAGE);

To make LOCALEDIR known to the program, add the following lines to
`Makefile.in':

datadir = @datadir@
localedir = $(datadir)/locale
DEFS = -DLOCALEDIR=\"$(localedir)\" @DEFS@

Note that `@datadir@' defaults to `$(prefix)/share', thus
`$(localedir)' defaults to `$(prefix)/share/locale'.

5. You should ensure that the final linking will use `@LIBINTL@' or
`@LTLIBINTL@' as a library. `@LIBINTL@' is for use without
`libtool', `@LTLIBINTL@' is for use with `libtool'. An easy way
to achieve this is to manage that it gets into `LIBS', like this:

LIBS = @LIBINTL@ @LIBS@

In most packages internationalized with GNU `gettext', one will
find a directory `lib/' in which a library containing some helper
functions will be build. (You need at least the few functions
which the GNU `gettext' Library itself needs.) However some of
the functions in the `lib/' also give messages to the user which
of course should be translated, too. Taking care of this, the
support library (say `libsupport.a') should be placed before
`@LIBINTL@' and `@LIBS@' in the above example. So one has to
write this:

LIBS = ../lib/libsupport.a @LIBINTL@ @LIBS@

6. You should also ensure that directory `intl/' will be searched for
C preprocessor include files in all circumstances. So, you have to
manage so both `-I../intl' and `-I$(top_srcdir)/intl' will be
given to the C compiler.

7. Your `dist:' goal has to conform with others. Here is a
reasonable definition for it:

distdir = ../$(PACKAGE)-$(VERSION)/$(subdir)
dist: Makefile $(DISTFILES)
for file in $(DISTFILES); do \
ln $$file $(distdir) 2>/dev/null || cp -p $$file $(distdir) || exit 1; \
done

Note that if you are using GNU `automake', `Makefile.in' is
automatically generated from `Makefile.am', and the first three changes
and the last change are not necessary. The remaining needed
`Makefile.am' modifications are the following:

1. To make LOCALEDIR known to the program, add the following to
`Makefile.am':

<module>_CPPFLAGS = -DLOCALEDIR=\"$(localedir)\"

for each specific module or compilation unit, or

AM_CPPFLAGS = -DLOCALEDIR=\"$(localedir)\"

for all modules and compilation units together. Furthermore, add
this line to define `localedir':

localedir = $(datadir)/locale

2. To ensure that the final linking will use `@LIBINTL@' or
`@LTLIBINTL@' as a library, add the following to `Makefile.am':

<program>_LDADD = @LIBINTL@

for each specific program, or

LDADD = @LIBINTL@

for all programs together. Remember that when you use `libtool'
to link a program, you need to use @LTLIBINTL@ instead of @LIBINTL@
for that program.

3. If you have an `intl/' directory, whose contents is created by
`gettextize', then to ensure that it will be searched for C
preprocessor include files in all circumstances, add something like
this to `Makefile.am':

AM_CPPFLAGS = -I../intl -I$(top_srcdir)/intl

File: gettext.info, Node: lib/gettext.h, Prev: src/Makefile, Up: Adjusting Files

13.4.13 `gettext.h' in `lib/'
-----------------------------

Internationalization of packages, as provided by GNU `gettext', is
optional. It can be turned off in two situations:

* When the installer has specified `./configure --disable-nls'. This
can be useful when small binaries are more important than
features, for example when building utilities for boot diskettes.
It can also be useful in order to get some specific C compiler
warnings about code quality with some older versions of GCC (older
than 3.0).

* When the package does not include the `intl/' subdirectory, and the
libintl.h header (with its associated libintl library, if any) is
not already installed on the system, it is preferable that the
package builds without internationalization support, rather than
to give a compilation error.

A C preprocessor macro can be used to detect these two cases.
Usually, when `libintl.h' was found and not explicitly disabled, the
`ENABLE_NLS' macro will be defined to 1 in the autoconf generated
configuration file (usually called `config.h'). In the two negative
situations, however, this macro will not be defined, thus it will
evaluate to 0 in C preprocessor expressions.

`gettext.h' is a convenience header file for conditional use of
`<libintl.h>', depending on the `ENABLE_NLS' macro. If `ENABLE_NLS' is
set, it includes `<libintl.h>'; otherwise it defines no-op substitutes
for the libintl.h functions. We recommend the use of `"gettext.h"'
over direct use of `<libintl.h>', so that portability to older systems
is guaranteed and installers can turn off internationalization if they
want to. In the C code, you will then write

#include "gettext.h"

instead of

#include <libintl.h>

The location of `gettext.h' is usually in a directory containing
auxiliary include files. In many GNU packages, there is a directory
`lib/' containing helper functions; `gettext.h' fits there. In other
packages, it can go into the `src' directory.

Do not install the `gettext.h' file in public locations. Every
package that needs it should contain a copy of it on its own.

File: gettext.info, Node: autoconf macros, Next: CVS Issues, Prev: Adjusting Files, Up: Maintainers

13.5 Autoconf macros for use in `configure.ac'
==============================================

GNU `gettext' installs macros for use in a package's `configure.ac'
or `configure.in'. *Note Introduction: (autoconf)Top. The primary
macro is, of course, `AM_GNU_GETTEXT'.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT, Next: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION, Prev: autoconf macros, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.1 AM_GNU_GETTEXT in `gettext.m4'
-------------------------------------

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' macro tests for the presence of the GNU gettext
function family in either the C library or a separate `libintl' library
(shared or static libraries are both supported) or in the package's
`intl/' directory. It also invokes `AM_PO_SUBDIRS', thus preparing the
`po/' directories of the package for building.

`AM_GNU_GETTEXT' accepts up to three optional arguments. The general
syntax is

AM_GNU_GETTEXT([INTLSYMBOL], [NEEDSYMBOL], [INTLDIR])

INTLSYMBOL can be `external' or `no-libtool'. The default (if it is
not specified or empty) is `no-libtool'. INTLSYMBOL should be
`external' for packages with no `intl/' directory. For packages with
an `intl/' directory, you can either use an INTLSYMBOL equal to
`no-libtool', or you can use `external' and override by using the macro
`AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR' elsewhere. The two ways to specify the
existence of an `intl/' directory are equivalent. At build time, a
static library `$(top_builddir)/intl/libintl.a' will then be created.

If NEEDSYMBOL is specified and is `need-ngettext', then GNU gettext
implementations (in libc or libintl) without the `ngettext()' function
will be ignored. If NEEDSYMBOL is specified and is
`need-formatstring-macros', then GNU gettext implementations that don't
support the ISO C 99 `<inttypes.h>' formatstring macros will be ignored.
Only one NEEDSYMBOL can be specified. These requirements can also be
specified by using the macro `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED' elsewhere. To
specify more than one requirement, just specify the strongest one among
them, or invoke the `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED' macro several times. The
hierarchy among the various alternatives is as follows:
`need-formatstring-macros' implies `need-ngettext'.

INTLDIR is used to find the intl libraries. If empty, the value
`$(top_builddir)/intl/' is used.

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' macro determines whether GNU gettext is
available and should be used. If so, it sets the `USE_NLS' variable to
`yes'; it defines `ENABLE_NLS' to 1 in the autoconf generated
configuration file (usually called `config.h'); it sets the variables
`LIBINTL' and `LTLIBINTL' to the linker options for use in a Makefile
(`LIBINTL' for use without libtool, `LTLIBINTL' for use with libtool);
it adds an `-I' option to `CPPFLAGS' if necessary. In the negative
case, it sets `USE_NLS' to `no'; it sets `LIBINTL' and `LTLIBINTL' to
empty and doesn't change `CPPFLAGS'.

The complexities that `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' deals with are the following:

* Some operating systems have `gettext' in the C library, for example
glibc. Some have it in a separate library `libintl'. GNU
`libintl' might have been installed as part of the GNU `gettext'
package.

* GNU `libintl', if installed, is not necessarily already in the
search path (`CPPFLAGS' for the include file search path,
`LDFLAGS' for the library search path).

* Except for glibc, the operating system's native `gettext' cannot
exploit the GNU mo files, doesn't have the necessary locale
dependency features, and cannot convert messages from the
catalog's text encoding to the user's locale encoding.

* GNU `libintl', if installed, is not necessarily already in the run
time library search path. To avoid the need for setting an
environment variable like `LD_LIBRARY_PATH', the macro adds the
appropriate run time search path options to the `LIBINTL' and
`LTLIBINTL' variables. This works on most systems, but not on
some operating systems with limited shared library support, like
SCO.

* GNU `libintl' relies on POSIX/XSI `iconv'. The macro checks for
linker options needed to use iconv and appends them to the
`LIBINTL' and `LTLIBINTL' variables.

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION, Next: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED, Prev: AM_GNU_GETTEXT, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.2 AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION in `gettext.m4'
---------------------------------------------

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION' macro declares the version number of
the GNU gettext infrastructure that is used by the package.

The use of this macro is optional; only the `autopoint' program makes
use of it (*note CVS Issues::).

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED, Next: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR, Prev: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.3 AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED in `gettext.m4'
------------------------------------------

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED' macro declares a constraint regarding the
GNU gettext implementation. The syntax is

AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED([NEEDSYMBOL])

If NEEDSYMBOL is `need-ngettext', then GNU gettext implementations
(in libc or libintl) without the `ngettext()' function will be ignored.
If NEEDSYMBOL is `need-formatstring-macros', then GNU gettext
implementations that don't support the ISO C 99 `<inttypes.h>'
formatstring macros will be ignored.

The optional second argument of `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' is also taken into
account.

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED' invocations can occur before or after the
`AM_GNU_GETTEXT' invocation; the order doesn't matter.

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR, Next: AM_PO_SUBDIRS, Prev: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.4 AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR in `intldir.m4'
-------------------------------------------------

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR' macro specifies that the
`AM_GNU_GETTEXT' macro, although invoked with the first argument
`external', should also prepare for building the `intl/' subdirectory.

The `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR' invocation can occur before or after
the `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' invocation; the order doesn't matter.

The use of this macro requires GNU automake 1.10 or newer and GNU
autoconf 2.61 or newer.

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_PO_SUBDIRS, Next: AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION, Prev: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.5 AM_PO_SUBDIRS in `po.m4'
-------------------------------

The `AM_PO_SUBDIRS' macro prepares the `po/' directories of the
package for building. This macro should be used in internationalized
programs written in other programming languages than C, C++, Objective
C, for example `sh', `Python', `Lisp'. See *Note Programming
Languages:: for a list of programming languages that support
localization through PO files.

The `AM_PO_SUBDIRS' macro determines whether internationalization
should be used. If so, it sets the `USE_NLS' variable to `yes',
otherwise to `no'. It also determines the right values for Makefile
variables in each `po/' directory.

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION, Next: AM_ICONV, Prev: AM_PO_SUBDIRS, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.6 AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION in `po.m4'
------------------------------------

The `AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION' macro registers a command-line option to be
used in the invocations of `xgettext' in the `po/' directories of the
package.

For example, if you have a source file that defines a function
`error_at_line' whose fifth argument is a format string, you can use
AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION([--flag=error_at_line:5:c-format])
to instruct `xgettext' to mark all translatable strings in `gettext'
invocations that occur as fifth argument to this function as `c-format'.

See *Note xgettext Invocation:: for the list of options that
`xgettext' accepts.

The use of this macro is an alternative to the use of the
`XGETTEXT_OPTIONS' variable in `po/Makevars'.

File: gettext.info, Node: AM_ICONV, Prev: AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION, Up: autoconf macros

13.5.7 AM_ICONV in `iconv.m4'
-----------------------------

The `AM_ICONV' macro tests for the presence of the POSIX/XSI `iconv'
function family in either the C library or a separate `libiconv'
library. If found, it sets the `am_cv_func_iconv' variable to `yes';
it defines `HAVE_ICONV' to 1 in the autoconf generated configuration
file (usually called `config.h'); it defines `ICONV_CONST' to `const'
or to empty, depending on whether the second argument of `iconv()' is
of type `const char **' or `char **'; it sets the variables `LIBICONV'
and `LTLIBICONV' to the linker options for use in a Makefile
(`LIBICONV' for use without libtool, `LTLIBICONV' for use with
libtool); it adds an `-I' option to `CPPFLAGS' if necessary. If not
found, it sets `LIBICONV' and `LTLIBICONV' to empty and doesn't change
`CPPFLAGS'.

The complexities that `AM_ICONV' deals with are the following:

* Some operating systems have `iconv' in the C library, for example
glibc. Some have it in a separate library `libiconv', for example
OSF/1 or FreeBSD. Regardless of the operating system, GNU
`libiconv' might have been installed. In that case, it should be
used instead of the operating system's native `iconv'.

* GNU `libiconv', if installed, is not necessarily already in the
search path (`CPPFLAGS' for the include file search path,
`LDFLAGS' for the library search path).

* GNU `libiconv' is binary incompatible with some operating system's
native `iconv', for example on FreeBSD. Use of an `iconv.h' and
`libiconv.so' that don't fit together would produce program
crashes.

* GNU `libiconv', if installed, is not necessarily already in the
run time library search path. To avoid the need for setting an
environment variable like `LD_LIBRARY_PATH', the macro adds the
appropriate run time search path options to the `LIBICONV'
variable. This works on most systems, but not on some operating
systems with limited shared library support, like SCO.

`iconv.m4' is distributed with the GNU gettext package because
`gettext.m4' relies on it.

File: gettext.info, Node: CVS Issues, Next: Release Management, Prev: autoconf macros, Up: Maintainers

13.6 Integrating with CVS
=========================

Many projects use CVS for distributed development, version control
and source backup. This section gives some advice how to manage the
uses of `cvs', `gettextize', `autopoint' and `autoconf'.

* Menu:

* Distributed CVS:: Avoiding version mismatch in distributed development
* Files under CVS:: Files to put under CVS version control
* autopoint Invocation:: Invoking the `autopoint' Program

File: gettext.info, Node: Distributed CVS, Next: Files under CVS, Prev: CVS Issues, Up: CVS Issues

13.6.1 Avoiding version mismatch in distributed development
-----------------------------------------------------------

In a project development with multiple developers, using CVS, there
should be a single developer who occasionally - when there is desire to
upgrade to a new `gettext' version - runs `gettextize' and performs the
changes listed in *Note Adjusting Files::, and then commits his changes
to the CVS.

It is highly recommended that all developers on a project use the
same version of GNU `gettext' in the package. In other words, if a
developer runs `gettextize', he should go the whole way, make the
necessary remaining changes and commit his changes to the CVS.
Otherwise the following damages will likely occur:

* Apparent version mismatch between developers. Since some `gettext'
specific portions in `configure.ac', `configure.in' and
`Makefile.am', `Makefile.in' files depend on the `gettext'
version, the use of infrastructure files belonging to different
`gettext' versions can easily lead to build errors.

* Hidden version mismatch. Such version mismatch can also lead to
malfunctioning of the package, that may be undiscovered by the
developers. The worst case of hidden version mismatch is that
internationalization of the package doesn't work at all.

* Release risks. All developers implicitly perform constant testing
on a package. This is important in the days and weeks before a
release. If the guy who makes the release tar files uses a
different version of GNU `gettext' than the other developers, the
distribution will be less well tested than if all had been using
the same `gettext' version. For example, it is possible that a
platform specific bug goes undiscovered due to this constellation.

File: gettext.info, Node: Files under CVS, Next: autopoint Invocation, Prev: Distributed CVS, Up: CVS Issues

13.6.2 Files to put under CVS version control
---------------------------------------------

There are basically three ways to deal with generated files in the
context of a CVS repository, such as `configure' generated from
`configure.ac', `PARSER.c' generated from `PARSER.y', or
`po/Makefile.in.in' autoinstalled by `gettextize' or `autopoint'.

1. All generated files are always committed into the repository.

2. All generated files are committed into the repository occasionally,
for example each time a release is made.

3. Generated files are never committed into the repository.

Each of these three approaches has different advantages and
drawbacks.

1. The advantage is that anyone can check out the CVS at any moment
and gets a working build. The drawbacks are: 1a. It requires
some frequent "cvs commit" actions by the maintainers. 1b. The
repository grows in size quite fast.

2. The advantage is that anyone can check out the CVS, and the usual
"./configure; make" will work. The drawbacks are: 2a. The one who
checks out the repository needs tools like GNU `automake', GNU
`autoconf', GNU `m4' installed in his PATH; sometimes he even
needs particular versions of them. 2b. When a release is made and
a commit is made on the generated files, the other developers get
conflicts on the generated files after doing "cvs update".
Although these conflicts are easy to resolve, they are annoying.

3. The advantage is less work for the maintainers. The drawback is
that anyone who checks out the CVS not only needs tools like GNU
`automake', GNU `autoconf', GNU `m4' installed in his PATH, but
also that he needs to perform a package specific pre-build step
before being able to "./configure; make".

For the first and second approach, all files modified or brought in
by the occasional `gettextize' invocation and update should be
committed into the CVS.

For the third approach, the maintainer can omit from the CVS
repository all the files that `gettextize' mentions as "copy".
Instead, he adds to the `configure.ac' or `configure.in' a line of the
form

AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION(0.17)

and adds to the package's pre-build script an invocation of
`autopoint'. For everyone who checks out the CVS, this `autopoint'
invocation will copy into the right place the `gettext' infrastructure
files that have been omitted from the CVS.

The version number used as argument to `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION' is
the version of the `gettext' infrastructure that the package wants to
use. It is also the minimum version number of the `autopoint' program.
So, if you write `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION(0.11.5)' then the developers
can have any version >= 0.11.5 installed; the package will work with
the 0.11.5 infrastructure in all developers' builds. When the
maintainer then runs gettextize from, say, version 0.12.1 on the
package, the occurrence of `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION(0.11.5)' will be
changed into `AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION(0.12.1)', and all other developers
that use the CVS will henceforth need to have GNU `gettext' 0.12.1 or
newer installed.

File: gettext.info, Node: autopoint Invocation, Prev: Files under CVS, Up: CVS Issues

13.6.3 Invoking the `autopoint' Program
---------------------------------------

autopoint [OPTION]...

The `autopoint' program copies standard gettext infrastructure files
into a source package. It extracts from a macro call of the form
`AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION(VERSION)', found in the package's
`configure.in' or `configure.ac' file, the gettext version used by the
package, and copies the infrastructure files belonging to this version
into the package.

13.6.3.1 Options
................

`-f'
`--force'
Force overwriting of files that already exist.

`-n'
`--dry-run'
Print modifications but don't perform them. All file copying
actions that `autopoint' would normally execute are inhibited and
instead only listed on standard output.

13.6.3.2 Informative output
...........................

`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`--version'
Output version information and exit.

`autopoint' supports the GNU `gettext' versions from 0.10.35 to the
current one, 0.17. In order to apply `autopoint' to a package using a
`gettext' version newer than 0.17, you need to install this same
version of GNU `gettext' at least.

In packages using GNU `automake', an invocation of `autopoint'
should be followed by invocations of `aclocal' and then `autoconf' and
`autoheader'. The reason is that `autopoint' installs some autoconf
macro files, which are used by `aclocal' to create `aclocal.m4', and
the latter is used by `autoconf' to create the package's `configure'
script and by `autoheader' to create the package's `config.h.in'
include file template.

The name `autopoint' is an abbreviation of `auto-po-intl-m4'; the
tool copies or updates mostly files in the `po', `intl', `m4'
directories.

File: gettext.info, Node: Release Management, Prev: CVS Issues, Up: Maintainers

13.7 Creating a Distribution Tarball
====================================

In projects that use GNU `automake', the usual commands for creating
a distribution tarball, `make dist' or `make distcheck', automatically
update the PO files as needed.

If GNU `automake' is not used, the maintainer needs to perform this
update before making a release:

$ ./configure
$ (cd po; make update-po)
$ make distclean

File: gettext.info, Node: Installers, Next: Programming Languages, Prev: Maintainers, Up: Top

14 The Installer's and Distributor's View
*****************************************

By default, packages fully using GNU `gettext', internally, are
installed in such a way that they to allow translation of messages. At
_configuration_ time, those packages should automatically detect
whether the underlying host system already provides the GNU `gettext'
functions. If not, the GNU `gettext' library should be automatically
prepared and used. Installers may use special options at configuration
time for changing this behavior. The command `./configure
--with-included-gettext' bypasses system `gettext' to use the included
GNU `gettext' instead, while `./configure --disable-nls' produces
programs totally unable to translate messages.

Internationalized packages have usually many `LL.po' files. Unless
translations are disabled, all those available are installed together
with the package. However, the environment variable `LINGUAS' may be
set, prior to configuration, to limit the installed set. `LINGUAS'
should then contain a space separated list of two-letter codes, stating
which languages are allowed.

File: gettext.info, Node: Programming Languages, Next: Conclusion, Prev: Installers, Up: Top

15 Other Programming Languages
******************************

While the presentation of `gettext' focuses mostly on C and
implicitly applies to C++ as well, its scope is far broader than that:
Many programming languages, scripting languages and other textual data
like GUI resources or package descriptions can make use of the gettext
approach.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Language Implementors, Next: Programmers for other Languages, Prev: Programming Languages, Up: Programming Languages

15.1 The Language Implementor's View
====================================

All programming and scripting languages that have the notion of
strings are eligible to supporting `gettext'. Supporting `gettext'
means the following:

1. You should add to the language a syntax for translatable strings.
In principle, a function call of `gettext' would do, but a
shorthand syntax helps keeping the legibility of internationalized
programs. For example, in C we use the syntax `_("string")', and
in GNU awk we use the shorthand `_"string"'.

2. You should arrange that evaluation of such a translatable string at
runtime calls the `gettext' function, or performs equivalent
processing.

3. Similarly, you should make the functions `ngettext', `dcgettext',
`dcngettext' available from within the language. These functions
are less often used, but are nevertheless necessary for particular
purposes: `ngettext' for correct plural handling, and `dcgettext'
and `dcngettext' for obeying other locale-related environment
variables than `LC_MESSAGES', such as `LC_TIME' or `LC_MONETARY'.
For these latter functions, you need to make the `LC_*' constants,
available in the C header `<locale.h>', referenceable from within
the language, usually either as enumeration values or as strings.

4. You should allow the programmer to designate a message domain,
either by making the `textdomain' function available from within
the language, or by introducing a magic variable called
`TEXTDOMAIN'. Similarly, you should allow the programmer to
designate where to search for message catalogs, by providing
access to the `bindtextdomain' function.

5. You should either perform a `setlocale (LC_ALL, "")' call during
the startup of your language runtime, or allow the programmer to
do so. Remember that gettext will act as a no-op if the
`LC_MESSAGES' and `LC_CTYPE' locale categories are not both set.

6. A programmer should have a way to extract translatable strings
from a program into a PO file. The GNU `xgettext' program is being
extended to support very different programming languages. Please
contact the GNU `gettext' maintainers to help them doing this. If
the string extractor is best integrated into your language's
parser, GNU `xgettext' can function as a front end to your string
extractor.

7. The language's library should have a string formatting facility
where the arguments of a format string are denoted by a positional
number or a name. This is needed because for some languages and
some messages with more than one substitutable argument, the
translation will need to output the substituted arguments in
different order. *Note c-format Flag::.

8. If the language has more than one implementation, and not all of
the implementations use `gettext', but the programs should be
portable across implementations, you should provide a no-i18n
emulation, that makes the other implementations accept programs
written for yours, without actually translating the strings.

9. To help the programmer in the task of marking translatable strings,
which is sometimes performed using the Emacs PO mode (*note
Marking::), you are welcome to contact the GNU `gettext'
maintainers, so they can add support for your language to
`po-mode.el'.

On the implementation side, three approaches are possible, with
different effects on portability and copyright:

* You may integrate the GNU `gettext''s `intl/' directory in your
package, as described in *Note Maintainers::. This allows you to
have internationalization on all kinds of platforms. Note that
when you then distribute your package, it legally falls under the
GNU General Public License, and the GNU project will be glad about
your contribution to the Free Software pool.

* You may link against GNU `gettext' functions if they are found in
the C library. For example, an autoconf test for `gettext()' and
`ngettext()' will detect this situation. For the moment, this test
will succeed on GNU systems and not on other platforms. No severe
copyright restrictions apply.

* You may emulate or reimplement the GNU `gettext' functionality.
This has the advantage of full portability and no copyright
restrictions, but also the drawback that you have to reimplement
the GNU `gettext' features (such as the `LANGUAGE' environment
variable, the locale aliases database, the automatic charset
conversion, and plural handling).

File: gettext.info, Node: Programmers for other Languages, Next: Translators for other Languages, Prev: Language Implementors, Up: Programming Languages

15.2 The Programmer's View
==========================

For the programmer, the general procedure is the same as for the C
language. The Emacs PO mode marking supports other languages, and the
GNU `xgettext' string extractor recognizes other languages based on the
file extension or a command-line option. In some languages,
`setlocale' is not needed because it is already performed by the
underlying language runtime.

File: gettext.info, Node: Translators for other Languages, Next: Maintainers for other Languages, Prev: Programmers for other Languages, Up: Programming Languages

15.3 The Translator's View
==========================

The translator works exactly as in the C language case. The only
difference is that when translating format strings, she has to be aware
of the language's particular syntax for positional arguments in format
strings.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: c-format, Next: objc-format, Prev: Translators for other Languages, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.1 C Format Strings
-----------------------

C format strings are described in POSIX (IEEE P1003.1 2001), section
XSH 3 fprintf(),
`http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/007904975/functions/fprintf.html'.
See also the fprintf() manual page,
`http://www.linuxvalley.it/encyclopedia/ldp/manpage/man3/printf.3.php',
`http://informatik.fh-wuerzburg.de/student/i510/man/printf.html'.

Although format strings with positions that reorder arguments, such
as

"Only %2$d bytes free on '%1$s'."

which is semantically equivalent to

"'%s' has only %d bytes free."

are a POSIX/XSI feature and not specified by ISO C 99, translators can
rely on this reordering ability: On the few platforms where `printf()',
`fprintf()' etc. don't support this feature natively, `libintl.a' or
`libintl.so' provides replacement functions, and GNU `<libintl.h>'
activates these replacement functions automatically.

As a special feature for Farsi (Persian) and maybe Arabic,
translators can insert an `I' flag into numeric format directives. For
example, the translation of `"%d"' can be `"%Id"'. The effect of this
flag, on systems with GNU `libc', is that in the output, the ASCII
digits are replaced with the `outdigits' defined in the `LC_CTYPE'
locale category. On other systems, the `gettext' function removes this
flag, so that it has no effect.

Note that the programmer should _not_ put this flag into the
untranslated string. (Putting the `I' format directive flag into an
MSGID string would lead to undefined behaviour on platforms without
glibc when NLS is disabled.)

File: gettext.info, Node: objc-format, Next: sh-format, Prev: c-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.2 Objective C Format Strings
---------------------------------

Objective C format strings are like C format strings. They support
an additional format directive: "$@", which when executed consumes an
argument of type `Object *'.

File: gettext.info, Node: sh-format, Next: python-format, Prev: objc-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.3 Shell Format Strings
---------------------------

Shell format strings, as supported by GNU gettext and the `envsubst'
program, are strings with references to shell variables in the form
`$VARIABLE' or `${VARIABLE}'. References of the form
`${VARIABLE-DEFAULT}', `${VARIABLE:-DEFAULT}', `${VARIABLE=DEFAULT}',
`${VARIABLE:=DEFAULT}', `${VARIABLE+REPLACEMENT}',
`${VARIABLE:+REPLACEMENT}', `${VARIABLE?IGNORED}',
`${VARIABLE:?IGNORED}', that would be valid inside shell scripts, are
not supported. The VARIABLE names must consist solely of alphanumeric
or underscore ASCII characters, not start with a digit and be nonempty;
otherwise such a variable reference is ignored.

File: gettext.info, Node: python-format, Next: lisp-format, Prev: sh-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.4 Python Format Strings
----------------------------

Python format strings are described in Python Library reference /
2. Built-in Types, Exceptions and Functions / 2.2. Built-in Types /
2.2.6. Sequence Types / 2.2.6.2. String Formatting Operations.
`http://www.python.org/doc/2.2.1/lib/typesseq-strings.html'.

File: gettext.info, Node: lisp-format, Next: elisp-format, Prev: python-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.5 Lisp Format Strings
--------------------------

Lisp format strings are described in the Common Lisp HyperSpec,
chapter 22.3 Formatted Output,
`http://www.lisp.org/HyperSpec/Body/sec_22-3.html'.

File: gettext.info, Node: elisp-format, Next: librep-format, Prev: lisp-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.6 Emacs Lisp Format Strings
--------------------------------

Emacs Lisp format strings are documented in the Emacs Lisp reference,
section Formatting Strings,
`http://www.gnu.org/manual/elisp-manual-21-2.8/html_chapter/elisp_4.html#SEC75'.
Note that as of version 21, XEmacs supports numbered argument
specifications in format strings while FSF Emacs doesn't.

File: gettext.info, Node: librep-format, Next: scheme-format, Prev: elisp-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.7 librep Format Strings
----------------------------

librep format strings are documented in the librep manual, section
Formatted Output,
`http://librep.sourceforge.net/librep-manual.html#Formatted%20Output',
`http://www.gwinnup.org/research/docs/librep.html#SEC122'.

File: gettext.info, Node: scheme-format, Next: smalltalk-format, Prev: librep-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.8 Scheme Format Strings
----------------------------

Scheme format strings are documented in the SLIB manual, section
Format Specification.

File: gettext.info, Node: smalltalk-format, Next: java-format, Prev: scheme-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.9 Smalltalk Format Strings
-------------------------------

Smalltalk format strings are described in the GNU Smalltalk
documentation, class `CharArray', methods `bindWith:' and
`bindWithArguments:'.
`http://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/gst-manual/gst_68.html#SEC238'.
In summary, a directive starts with `%' and is followed by `%' or a
nonzero digit (`1' to `9').

File: gettext.info, Node: java-format, Next: csharp-format, Prev: smalltalk-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.10 Java Format Strings
---------------------------

Java format strings are described in the JDK documentation for class
`java.text.MessageFormat',
`http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4/docs/api/java/text/MessageFormat.html'.
See also the ICU documentation
`http://oss.software.ibm.com/icu/apiref/classMessageFormat.html'.

File: gettext.info, Node: csharp-format, Next: awk-format, Prev: java-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.11 C# Format Strings
-------------------------

C# format strings are described in the .NET documentation for class
`System.String' and in
`http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpConFormattingOverview.asp'.

File: gettext.info, Node: awk-format, Next: object-pascal-format, Prev: csharp-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.12 awk Format Strings
--------------------------

awk format strings are described in the gawk documentation, section
Printf, `http://www.gnu.org/manual/gawk/html_node/Printf.html#Printf'.

File: gettext.info, Node: object-pascal-format, Next: ycp-format, Prev: awk-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.13 Object Pascal Format Strings
------------------------------------

Where is this documented?

File: gettext.info, Node: ycp-format, Next: tcl-format, Prev: object-pascal-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.14 YCP Format Strings
--------------------------

YCP sformat strings are described in the libycp documentation
`file:/usr/share/doc/packages/libycp/YCP-builtins.html'. In summary, a
directive starts with `%' and is followed by `%' or a nonzero digit
(`1' to `9').

File: gettext.info, Node: tcl-format, Next: perl-format, Prev: ycp-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.15 Tcl Format Strings
--------------------------

Tcl format strings are described in the `format.n' manual page,
`http://www.scriptics.com/man/tcl8.3/TclCmd/format.htm'.

File: gettext.info, Node: perl-format, Next: php-format, Prev: tcl-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.16 Perl Format Strings
---------------------------

There are two kinds format strings in Perl: those acceptable to the
Perl built-in function `printf', labelled as `perl-format', and those
acceptable to the `libintl-perl' function `__x', labelled as
`perl-brace-format'.

Perl `printf' format strings are described in the `sprintf' section
of `man perlfunc'.

Perl brace format strings are described in the
`Locale::TextDomain(3pm)' manual page of the CPAN package libintl-perl.
In brief, Perl format uses placeholders put between braces (`{' and
`}'). The placeholder must have the syntax of simple identifiers.

File: gettext.info, Node: php-format, Next: gcc-internal-format, Prev: perl-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.17 PHP Format Strings
--------------------------

PHP format strings are described in the documentation of the PHP
function `sprintf', in `phpdoc/manual/function.sprintf.html' or
`http://www.php.net/manual/en/function.sprintf.php'.

File: gettext.info, Node: gcc-internal-format, Next: qt-format, Prev: php-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.18 GCC internal Format Strings
-----------------------------------

These format strings are used inside the GCC sources. In such a
format string, a directive starts with `%', is optionally followed by a
size specifier `l', an optional flag `+', another optional flag `#',
and is finished by a specifier: `%' denotes a literal percent sign, `c'
denotes a character, `s' denotes a string, `i' and `d' denote an
integer, `o', `u', `x' denote an unsigned integer, `.*s' denotes a
string preceded by a width specification, `H' denotes a `location_t *'
pointer, `D' denotes a general declaration, `F' denotes a function
declaration, `T' denotes a type, `A' denotes a function argument, `C'
denotes a tree code, `E' denotes an expression, `L' denotes a
programming language, `O' denotes a binary operator, `P' denotes a
function parameter, `Q' denotes an assignment operator, `V' denotes a
const/volatile qualifier.

File: gettext.info, Node: qt-format, Next: kde-format, Prev: gcc-internal-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.19 Qt Format Strings
-------------------------

Qt format strings are described in the documentation of the QString
class `file:/usr/lib/qt-4.3.0/doc/html/qstring.html'. In summary, a
directive consists of a `%' followed by a digit. The same directive
cannot occur more than once in a format string.

File: gettext.info, Node: kde-format, Next: boost-format, Prev: qt-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.20 KDE Format Strings
--------------------------

KDE 4 format strings are defined as follows: A directive consists of
a `%' followed by a non-zero decimal number. If a `%n' occurs in a
format strings, all of `%1', ..., `%(n-1)' must occur as well, except
possibly one of them.

File: gettext.info, Node: boost-format, Prev: kde-format, Up: Translators for other Languages

15.3.21 Boost Format Strings
----------------------------

Boost format strings are described in the documentation of the
`boost::format' class, at
`http://www.boost.org/libs/format/doc/format.html'. In summary, a
directive has either the same syntax as in a C format string, such as
`%1$+5d', or may be surrounded by vertical bars, such as `%|1$+5d|' or
`%|1$+5|', or consists of just an argument number between percent
signs, such as `%1%'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Maintainers for other Languages, Next: List of Programming Languages, Prev: Translators for other Languages, Up: Programming Languages

15.4 The Maintainer's View
==========================

For the maintainer, the general procedure differs from the C language
case in two ways.

* For those languages that don't use GNU gettext, the `intl/'
directory is not needed and can be omitted. This means that the
maintainer calls the `gettextize' program without the `--intl'
option, and that he invokes the `AM_GNU_GETTEXT' autoconf macro via
`AM_GNU_GETTEXT([external])'.

* If only a single programming language is used, the
`XGETTEXT_OPTIONS' variable in `po/Makevars' (*note po/Makevars::)
should be adjusted to match the `xgettext' options for that
particular programming language. If the package uses more than
one programming language with `gettext' support, it becomes
necessary to change the POT file construction rule in
`po/Makefile.in.in'. It is recommended to make one `xgettext'
invocation per programming language, each with the options
appropriate for that language, and to combine the resulting files
using `msgcat'.

File: gettext.info, Node: List of Programming Languages, Next: List of Data Formats, Prev: Maintainers for other Languages, Up: Programming Languages

15.5 Individual Programming Languages
=====================================

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: C, Next: sh, Prev: List of Programming Languages, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.1 C, C++, Objective C
--------------------------

RPMs
gcc, gpp, gobjc, glibc, gettext

File extension
For C: `c', `h'.
For C++: `C', `c++', `cc', `cxx', `cpp', `hpp'.
For Objective C: `m'.

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`_("abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `dgettext', `dcgettext', `ngettext', `dngettext',
`dcngettext'

textdomain
`textdomain' function

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

setlocale
Programmer must call `setlocale (LC_ALL, "")'

Prerequisite
`#include <libintl.h>'
`#include <locale.h>'
`#define _(string) gettext (string)'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
Use

Extractor
`xgettext -k_'

Formatting with positions
`fprintf "%2$d %1$d"'
In C++: `autosprintf "%2$d %1$d"' (*note Introduction:
(autosprintf)Top.)

Portability
autoconf (gettext.m4) and #if ENABLE_NLS

po-mode marking
yes

The following examples are available in the `examples' directory:
`hello-c', `hello-c-gnome', `hello-c++', `hello-c++-qt',
`hello-c++-kde', `hello-c++-gnome', `hello-c++-wxwidgets',
`hello-objc', `hello-objc-gnustep', `hello-objc-gnome'.

File: gettext.info, Node: sh, Next: bash, Prev: C, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.2 sh - Shell Script
------------------------

RPMs
bash, gettext

File extension
`sh'

String syntax
`"abc"', `'abc'', `abc'

gettext shorthand
`"`gettext \"abc\"`"'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `ngettext' programs
`eval_gettext', `eval_ngettext' shell functions

textdomain
environment variable `TEXTDOMAIN'

bindtextdomain
environment variable `TEXTDOMAINDIR'

setlocale
automatic

Prerequisite
`. gettext.sh'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
--

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-sh'.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: Preparing Shell Scripts, Next: gettext.sh, Prev: sh, Up: sh

15.5.2.1 Preparing Shell Scripts for Internationalization
.........................................................

Preparing a shell script for internationalization is conceptually
similar to the steps described in *Note Sources::. The concrete steps
for shell scripts are as follows.

1. Insert the line

. gettext.sh

near the top of the script. `gettext.sh' is a shell function
library that provides the functions `eval_gettext' (see *Note
eval_gettext Invocation::) and `eval_ngettext' (see *Note
eval_ngettext Invocation::). You have to ensure that `gettext.sh'
can be found in the `PATH'.

2. Set and export the `TEXTDOMAIN' and `TEXTDOMAINDIR' environment
variables. Usually `TEXTDOMAIN' is the package or program name,
and `TEXTDOMAINDIR' is the absolute pathname corresponding to
`$prefix/share/locale', where `$prefix' is the installation
location.

TEXTDOMAIN=@PACKAGE@
export TEXTDOMAIN
TEXTDOMAINDIR=@LOCALEDIR@
export TEXTDOMAINDIR

3. Prepare the strings for translation, as described in *Note
Preparing Strings::.

4. Simplify translatable strings so that they don't contain command
substitution (`"`...`"' or `"$(...)"'), variable access with
defaulting (like `${VARIABLE-DEFAULT}'), access to positional
arguments (like `$0', `$1', ...) or highly volatile shell
variables (like `$?'). This can always be done through simple
local code restructuring. For example,

echo "Usage: $0 [OPTION] FILE..."

becomes

program_name=$0
echo "Usage: $program_name [OPTION] FILE..."

Similarly,

echo "Remaining files: `ls | wc -l`"

becomes

filecount="`ls | wc -l`"
echo "Remaining files: $filecount"

5. For each translatable string, change the output command `echo' or
`$echo' to `gettext' (if the string contains no references to
shell variables) or to `eval_gettext' (if it refers to shell
variables), followed by a no-argument `echo' command (to account
for the terminating newline). Similarly, for cases with plural
handling, replace a conditional `echo' command with an invocation
of `ngettext' or `eval_ngettext', followed by a no-argument `echo'
command.

When doing this, you also need to add an extra backslash before
the dollar sign in references to shell variables, so that the
`eval_gettext' function receives the translatable string before
the variable values are substituted into it. For example,

echo "Remaining files: $filecount"

becomes

eval_gettext "Remaining files: \$filecount"; echo

If the output command is not `echo', you can make it use `echo'
nevertheless, through the use of backquotes. However, note that
inside backquotes, backslashes must be doubled to be effective
(because the backquoting eats one level of backslashes). For
example, assuming that `error' is a shell function that signals an
error,

error "file not found: $filename"

is first transformed into

error "`echo \"file not found: \$filename\"`"

which then becomes

error "`eval_gettext \"file not found: \\\$filename\"`"

File: gettext.info, Node: gettext.sh, Next: gettext Invocation, Prev: Preparing Shell Scripts, Up: sh

15.5.2.2 Contents of `gettext.sh'
.................................

`gettext.sh', contained in the run-time package of GNU gettext,
provides the following:

* $echo The variable `echo' is set to a command that outputs its
first argument and a newline, without interpreting backslashes in
the argument string.

* eval_gettext See *Note eval_gettext Invocation::.

* eval_ngettext See *Note eval_ngettext Invocation::.

File: gettext.info, Node: gettext Invocation, Next: ngettext Invocation, Prev: gettext.sh, Up: sh

15.5.2.3 Invoking the `gettext' program
.......................................

gettext [OPTION] [[TEXTDOMAIN] MSGID]
gettext [OPTION] -s [MSGID]...

The `gettext' program displays the native language translation of a
textual message.

*Arguments*

`-d TEXTDOMAIN'
`--domain=TEXTDOMAIN'
Retrieve translated messages from TEXTDOMAIN. Usually a TEXTDOMAIN
corresponds to a package, a program, or a module of a program.

`-e'
Enable expansion of some escape sequences. This option is for
compatibility with the `echo' program or shell built-in. The
escape sequences `\a', `\b', `\c', `\f', `\n', `\r', `\t', `\v',
`\\', and `\' followed by one to three octal digits, are
interpreted like the System V `echo' program did.

`-E'
This option is only for compatibility with the `echo' program or
shell built-in. It has no effect.

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-n'
Suppress trailing newline. By default, `gettext' adds a newline to
the output.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

`[TEXTDOMAIN] MSGID'
Retrieve translated message corresponding to MSGID from TEXTDOMAIN.

If the TEXTDOMAIN parameter is not given, the domain is determined
from the environment variable `TEXTDOMAIN'. If the message catalog is
not found in the regular directory, another location can be specified
with the environment variable `TEXTDOMAINDIR'.

When used with the `-s' option the program behaves like the `echo'
command. But it does not simply copy its arguments to stdout. Instead
those messages found in the selected catalog are translated.

File: gettext.info, Node: ngettext Invocation, Next: envsubst Invocation, Prev: gettext Invocation, Up: sh

15.5.2.4 Invoking the `ngettext' program
........................................

ngettext [OPTION] [TEXTDOMAIN] MSGID MSGID-PLURAL COUNT

The `ngettext' program displays the native language translation of a
textual message whose grammatical form depends on a number.

*Arguments*

`-d TEXTDOMAIN'
`--domain=TEXTDOMAIN'
Retrieve translated messages from TEXTDOMAIN. Usually a TEXTDOMAIN
corresponds to a package, a program, or a module of a program.

`-e'
Enable expansion of some escape sequences. This option is for
compatibility with the `gettext' program. The escape sequences
`\a', `\b', `\c', `\f', `\n', `\r', `\t', `\v', `\\', and `\'
followed by one to three octal digits, are interpreted like the
System V `echo' program did.

`-E'
This option is only for compatibility with the `gettext' program.
It has no effect.

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

`TEXTDOMAIN'
Retrieve translated message from TEXTDOMAIN.

`MSGID MSGID-PLURAL'
Translate MSGID (English singular) / MSGID-PLURAL (English plural).

`COUNT'
Choose singular/plural form based on this value.

File: gettext.info, Node: envsubst Invocation, Next: eval_gettext Invocation, Prev: ngettext Invocation, Up: sh

15.5.2.5 Invoking the `envsubst' program
........................................

envsubst [OPTION] [SHELL-FORMAT]

The `envsubst' program substitutes the values of environment
variables.

*Operation mode*

`-v'
`--variables'
Output the variables occurring in SHELL-FORMAT.

*Informative output*

`-h'
`--help'
Display this help and exit.

`-V'
`--version'
Output version information and exit.

In normal operation mode, standard input is copied to standard
output, with references to environment variables of the form
`$VARIABLE' or `${VARIABLE}' being replaced with the corresponding
values. If a SHELL-FORMAT is given, only those environment variables
that are referenced in SHELL-FORMAT are substituted; otherwise all
environment variables references occurring in standard input are
substituted.

These substitutions are a subset of the substitutions that a shell
performs on unquoted and double-quoted strings. Other kinds of
substitutions done by a shell, such as `${VARIABLE-DEFAULT}' or
`$(COMMAND-LIST)' or ``COMMAND-LIST`', are not performed by the
`envsubst' program, due to security reasons.

When `--variables' is used, standard input is ignored, and the output
consists of the environment variables that are referenced in
SHELL-FORMAT, one per line.

File: gettext.info, Node: eval_gettext Invocation, Next: eval_ngettext Invocation, Prev: envsubst Invocation, Up: sh

15.5.2.6 Invoking the `eval_gettext' function
.............................................

eval_gettext MSGID

This function outputs the native language translation of a textual
message, performing dollar-substitution on the result. Note that only
shell variables mentioned in MSGID will be dollar-substituted in the
result.

File: gettext.info, Node: eval_ngettext Invocation, Prev: eval_gettext Invocation, Up: sh

15.5.2.7 Invoking the `eval_ngettext' function
..............................................

eval_ngettext MSGID MSGID-PLURAL COUNT

This function outputs the native language translation of a textual
message whose grammatical form depends on a number, performing
dollar-substitution on the result. Note that only shell variables
mentioned in MSGID or MSGID-PLURAL will be dollar-substituted in the
result.

File: gettext.info, Node: bash, Next: Python, Prev: sh, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.3 bash - Bourne-Again Shell Script
---------------------------------------

GNU `bash' 2.0 or newer has a special shorthand for translating a
string and substituting variable values in it: `$"msgid"'. But the use
of this construct is *discouraged*, due to the security holes it opens
and due to its portability problems.

The security holes of `$"..."' come from the fact that after looking
up the translation of the string, `bash' processes it like it processes
any double-quoted string: dollar and backquote processing, like `eval'
does.

1. In a locale whose encoding is one of BIG5, BIG5-HKSCS, GBK,
GB18030, SHIFT_JIS, JOHAB, some double-byte characters have a
second byte whose value is `0x60'. For example, the byte sequence
`\xe0\x60' is a single character in these locales. Many versions
of `bash' (all versions up to bash-2.05, and newer versions on
platforms without `mbsrtowcs()' function) don't know about
character boundaries and see a backquote character where there is
only a particular Chinese character. Thus it can start executing
part of the translation as a command list. This situation can
occur even without the translator being aware of it: if the
translator provides translations in the UTF-8 encoding, it is the
`gettext()' function which will, during its conversion from the
translator's encoding to the user's locale's encoding, produce the
dangerous `\x60' bytes.

2. A translator could - voluntarily or inadvertently - use backquotes
`"`...`"' or dollar-parentheses `"$(...)"' in her translations.
The enclosed strings would be executed as command lists by the
shell.

The portability problem is that `bash' must be built with
internationalization support; this is normally not the case on systems
that don't have the `gettext()' function in libc.

File: gettext.info, Node: Python, Next: Common Lisp, Prev: bash, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.4 Python
-------------

RPMs
python

File extension
`py'

String syntax
`'abc'', `u'abc'', `r'abc'', `ur'abc'',
`"abc"', `u"abc"', `r"abc"', `ur"abc"',
`'''abc'''', `u'''abc'''', `r'''abc'''', `ur'''abc'''',
`"""abc"""', `u"""abc"""', `r"""abc"""', `ur"""abc"""'

gettext shorthand
`_('abc')' etc.

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext.gettext', `gettext.dgettext', `gettext.ngettext',
`gettext.dngettext', also `ugettext', `ungettext'

textdomain
`gettext.textdomain' function, or `gettext.install(DOMAIN)'
function

bindtextdomain
`gettext.bindtextdomain' function, or
`gettext.install(DOMAIN,LOCALEDIR)' function

setlocale
not used by the gettext emulation

Prerequisite
`import gettext'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
emulate

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`'...%(ident)d...' % { 'ident': value }'

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-python'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Common Lisp, Next: clisp C, Prev: Python, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.5 GNU clisp - Common Lisp
------------------------------

RPMs
clisp 2.28 or newer

File extension
`lisp'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`(_ "abc")', `(ENGLISH "abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`i18n:gettext', `i18n:ngettext'

textdomain
`i18n:textdomain'

bindtextdomain
`i18n:textdomaindir'

setlocale
automatic

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext -k_ -kENGLISH'

Formatting with positions
`format "~1@*~D ~0@*~D"'

Portability
On platforms without gettext, no translation.

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-clisp'.

File: gettext.info, Node: clisp C, Next: Emacs Lisp, Prev: Common Lisp, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.6 GNU clisp C sources
--------------------------

RPMs
clisp

File extension
`d'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`ENGLISH ? "abc" : ""'
`GETTEXT("abc")'
`GETTEXTL("abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`clgettext', `clgettextl'

textdomain
--

bindtextdomain
--

setlocale
automatic

Prerequisite
`#include "lispbibl.c"'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`clisp-xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`fprintf "%2$d %1$d"'

Portability
On platforms without gettext, no translation.

po-mode marking
--

File: gettext.info, Node: Emacs Lisp, Next: librep, Prev: clisp C, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.7 Emacs Lisp
-----------------

RPMs
emacs, xemacs

File extension
`el'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`(_"abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `dgettext' (xemacs only)

textdomain
`domain' special form (xemacs only)

bindtextdomain
`bind-text-domain' function (xemacs only)

setlocale
automatic

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`format "%2$d %1$d"'

Portability
Only XEmacs. Without `I18N3' defined at build time, no
translation.

po-mode marking
--

File: gettext.info, Node: librep, Next: Scheme, Prev: Emacs Lisp, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.8 librep
-------------

RPMs
librep 0.15.3 or newer

File extension
`jl'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`(_"abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext'

textdomain
`textdomain' function

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

setlocale
--

Prerequisite
`(require 'rep.i18n.gettext)'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`format "%2$d %1$d"'

Portability
On platforms without gettext, no translation.

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-librep'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Scheme, Next: Smalltalk, Prev: librep, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.9 GNU guile - Scheme
-------------------------

RPMs
guile

File extension
`scm'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`(_ "abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `ngettext'

textdomain
`textdomain'

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain'

setlocale
`(catch #t (lambda () (setlocale LC_ALL "")) (lambda args #f))'

Prerequisite
`(use-modules (ice-9 format))'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext -k_'

Formatting with positions
--

Portability
On platforms without gettext, no translation.

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-guile'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Smalltalk, Next: Java, Prev: Scheme, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.10 GNU Smalltalk
---------------------

RPMs
smalltalk

File extension
`st'

String syntax
`'abc''

gettext shorthand
`NLS ? 'abc''

gettext/ngettext functions
`LcMessagesDomain>>#at:', `LcMessagesDomain>>#at:plural:with:'

textdomain
`LcMessages>>#domain:localeDirectory:' (returns a
`LcMessagesDomain' object).
Example: `I18N Locale default messages domain: 'gettext'
localeDirectory: /usr/local/share/locale''

bindtextdomain
`LcMessages>>#domain:localeDirectory:', see above.

setlocale
Automatic if you use `I18N Locale default'.

Prerequisite
`PackageLoader fileInPackage: 'I18N'!'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
emulate

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`'%1 %2' bindWith: 'Hello' with: 'world''

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory:
`hello-smalltalk'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Java, Next: C#, Prev: Smalltalk, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.11 Java
------------

RPMs
java, java2

File extension
`java'

String syntax
"abc"

gettext shorthand
_("abc")

gettext/ngettext functions
`GettextResource.gettext', `GettextResource.ngettext',
`GettextResource.pgettext', `GettextResource.npgettext'

textdomain
--, use `ResourceBundle.getResource' instead

bindtextdomain
--, use CLASSPATH instead

setlocale
automatic

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
--, uses a Java specific message catalog format

Extractor
`xgettext -k_'

Formatting with positions
`MessageFormat.format "{1,number} {0,number}"'

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

Before marking strings as internationalizable, uses of the string
concatenation operator need to be converted to `MessageFormat'
applications. For example, `"file "+filename+" not found"' becomes
`MessageFormat.format("file {0} not found", new Object[] { filename })'.
Only after this is done, can the strings be marked and extracted.

GNU gettext uses the native Java internationalization mechanism,
namely `ResourceBundle's. There are two formats of `ResourceBundle's:
`.properties' files and `.class' files. The `.properties' format is a
text file which the translators can directly edit, like PO files, but
which doesn't support plural forms. Whereas the `.class' format is
compiled from `.java' source code and can support plural forms
(provided it is accessed through an appropriate API, see below).

To convert a PO file to a `.properties' file, the `msgcat' program
can be used with the option `--properties-output'. To convert a
`.properties' file back to a PO file, the `msgcat' program can be used
with the option `--properties-input'. All the tools that manipulate PO
files can work with `.properties' files as well, if given the
`--properties-input' and/or `--properties-output' option.

To convert a PO file to a ResourceBundle class, the `msgfmt' program
can be used with the option `--java' or `--java2'. To convert a
ResourceBundle back to a PO file, the `msgunfmt' program can be used
with the option `--java'.

Two different programmatic APIs can be used to access
ResourceBundles. Note that both APIs work with all kinds of
ResourceBundles, whether GNU gettext generated classes, or other
`.class' or `.properties' files.

1. The `java.util.ResourceBundle' API.

In particular, its `getString' function returns a string
translation. Note that a missing translation yields a
`MissingResourceException'.

This has the advantage of being the standard API. And it does not
require any additional libraries, only the `msgcat' generated
`.properties' files or the `msgfmt' generated `.class' files. But
it cannot do plural handling, even if the resource was generated
by `msgfmt' from a PO file with plural handling.

2. The `gnu.gettext.GettextResource' API.

Reference documentation in Javadoc 1.1 style format is in the
javadoc2 directory (javadoc2/index.html).

Its `gettext' function returns a string translation. Note that
when a translation is missing, the MSGID argument is returned
unchanged.

This has the advantage of having the `ngettext' function for plural
handling and the `pgettext' and `npgettext' for strings constraint
to a particular context.

To use this API, one needs the `libintl.jar' file which is part of
the GNU gettext package and distributed under the LGPL.

Four examples, using the second API, are available in the `examples'
directory: `hello-java', `hello-java-awt', `hello-java-swing',
`hello-java-qtjambi'.

Now, to make use of the API and define a shorthand for `getString',
there are three idioms that you can choose from:

* (This one assumes Java 1.5 or newer.) In a unique class of your
project, say `Util', define a static variable holding the
`ResourceBundle' instance and the shorthand:

private static ResourceBundle myResources =
ResourceBundle.getBundle("domain-name");
public static String _(String s) {
return myResources.getString(s);
}

All classes containing internationalized strings then contain

import static Util._;

and the shorthand is used like this:

System.out.println(_("Operation completed."));

* In a unique class of your project, say `Util', define a static
variable holding the `ResourceBundle' instance:

public static ResourceBundle myResources =
ResourceBundle.getBundle("domain-name");

All classes containing internationalized strings then contain

private static ResourceBundle res = Util.myResources;
private static String _(String s) { return res.getString(s); }

and the shorthand is used like this:

System.out.println(_("Operation completed."));

* You add a class with a very short name, say `S', containing just
the definition of the resource bundle and of the shorthand:

public class S {
public static ResourceBundle myResources =
ResourceBundle.getBundle("domain-name");
public static String _(String s) {
return myResources.getString(s);
}
}

and the shorthand is used like this:

System.out.println(S._("Operation completed."));

Which of the three idioms you choose, will depend on whether your
project requires portability to Java versions prior to Java 1.5 and, if
so, whether copying two lines of codes into every class is more
acceptable in your project than a class with a single-letter name.

File: gettext.info, Node: C#, Next: gawk, Prev: Java, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.12 C#
----------

RPMs
pnet, pnetlib 0.6.2 or newer, or mono 0.29 or newer

File extension
`cs'

String syntax
`"abc"', `@"abc"'

gettext shorthand
_("abc")

gettext/ngettext functions
`GettextResourceManager.GetString',
`GettextResourceManager.GetPluralString'
`GettextResourceManager.GetParticularString'
`GettextResourceManager.GetParticularPluralString'

textdomain
`new GettextResourceManager(domain)'

bindtextdomain
--, compiled message catalogs are located in subdirectories of the
directory containing the executable

setlocale
automatic

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
--, uses a C# specific message catalog format

Extractor
`xgettext -k_'

Formatting with positions
`String.Format "{1} {0}"'

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

Before marking strings as internationalizable, uses of the string
concatenation operator need to be converted to `String.Format'
invocations. For example, `"file "+filename+" not found"' becomes
`String.Format("file {0} not found", filename)'. Only after this is
done, can the strings be marked and extracted.

GNU gettext uses the native C#/.NET internationalization mechanism,
namely the classes `ResourceManager' and `ResourceSet'. Applications
use the `ResourceManager' methods to retrieve the native language
translation of strings. An instance of `ResourceSet' is the in-memory
representation of a message catalog file. The `ResourceManager' loads
and accesses `ResourceSet' instances as needed to look up the
translations.

There are two formats of `ResourceSet's that can be directly loaded
by the C# runtime: `.resources' files and `.dll' files.

* The `.resources' format is a binary file usually generated through
the `resgen' or `monoresgen' utility, but which doesn't support
plural forms. `.resources' files can also be embedded in .NET
`.exe' files. This only affects whether a file system access is
performed to load the message catalog; it doesn't affect the
contents of the message catalog.

* On the other hand, the `.dll' format is a binary file that is
compiled from `.cs' source code and can support plural forms
(provided it is accessed through the GNU gettext API, see below).

Note that these .NET `.dll' and `.exe' files are not tied to a
particular platform; their file format and GNU gettext for C# can be
used on any platform.

To convert a PO file to a `.resources' file, the `msgfmt' program
can be used with the option `--csharp-resources'. To convert a
`.resources' file back to a PO file, the `msgunfmt' program can be used
with the option `--csharp-resources'. You can also, in some cases, use
the `resgen' program (from the `pnet' package) or the `monoresgen'
program (from the `mono'/`mcs' package). These programs can also
convert a `.resources' file back to a PO file. But beware: as of this
writing (January 2004), the `monoresgen' converter is quite buggy and
the `resgen' converter ignores the encoding of the PO files.

To convert a PO file to a `.dll' file, the `msgfmt' program can be
used with the option `--csharp'. The result will be a `.dll' file
containing a subclass of `GettextResourceSet', which itself is a
subclass of `ResourceSet'. To convert a `.dll' file containing a
`GettextResourceSet' subclass back to a PO file, the `msgunfmt' program
can be used with the option `--csharp'.

The advantages of the `.dll' format over the `.resources' format are:

1. Freedom to localize: Users can add their own translations to an
application after it has been built and distributed. Whereas when
the programmer uses a `ResourceManager' constructor provided by
the system, the set of `.resources' files for an application must
be specified when the application is built and cannot be extended
afterwards.

2. Plural handling: A message catalog in `.dll' format supports the
plural handling function `GetPluralString'. Whereas `.resources'
files can only contain data and only support lookups that depend
on a single string.

3. Context handling: A message catalog in `.dll' format supports the
query-with-context functions `GetParticularString' and
`GetParticularPluralString'. Whereas `.resources' files can only
contain data and only support lookups that depend on a single
string.

4. The `GettextResourceManager' that loads the message catalogs in
`.dll' format also provides for inheritance on a per-message basis.
For example, in Austrian (`de_AT') locale, translations from the
German (`de') message catalog will be used for messages not found
in the Austrian message catalog. This has the consequence that
the Austrian translators need only translate those few messages
for which the translation into Austrian differs from the German
one. Whereas when working with `.resources' files, each message
catalog must provide the translations of all messages by itself.

5. The `GettextResourceManager' that loads the message catalogs in
`.dll' format also provides for a fallback: The English MSGID is
returned when no translation can be found. Whereas when working
with `.resources' files, a language-neutral `.resources' file must
explicitly be provided as a fallback.

On the side of the programmatic APIs, the programmer can use either
the standard `ResourceManager' API and the GNU `GettextResourceManager'
API. The latter is an extension of the former, because
`GettextResourceManager' is a subclass of `ResourceManager'.

1. The `System.Resources.ResourceManager' API.

This API works with resources in `.resources' format.

The creation of the `ResourceManager' is done through
new ResourceManager(domainname, Assembly.GetExecutingAssembly())
The `GetString' function returns a string's translation. Note
that this function returns null when a translation is missing
(i.e. not even found in the fallback resource file).

2. The `GNU.Gettext.GettextResourceManager' API.

This API works with resources in `.dll' format.

Reference documentation is in the csharpdoc directory
(csharpdoc/index.html).

The creation of the `ResourceManager' is done through
new GettextResourceManager(domainname)

The `GetString' function returns a string's translation. Note
that when a translation is missing, the MSGID argument is returned
unchanged.

The `GetPluralString' function returns a string translation with
plural handling, like the `ngettext' function in C.

The `GetParticularString' function returns a string's translation,
specific to a particular context, like the `pgettext' function in
C. Note that when a translation is missing, the MSGID argument is
returned unchanged.

The `GetParticularPluralString' function returns a string
translation, specific to a particular context, with plural
handling, like the `npgettext' function in C.

To use this API, one needs the `GNU.Gettext.dll' file which is
part of the GNU gettext package and distributed under the LGPL.

You can also mix both approaches: use the
`GNU.Gettext.GettextResourceManager' constructor, but otherwise use
only the `ResourceManager' type and only the `GetString' method. This
is appropriate when you want to profit from the tools for PO files, but
don't want to change an existing source code that uses
`ResourceManager' and don't (yet) need the `GetPluralString' method.

Two examples, using the second API, are available in the `examples'
directory: `hello-csharp', `hello-csharp-forms'.

Now, to make use of the API and define a shorthand for `GetString',
there are two idioms that you can choose from:

* In a unique class of your project, say `Util', define a static
variable holding the `ResourceManager' instance:

public static GettextResourceManager MyResourceManager =
new GettextResourceManager("domain-name");

All classes containing internationalized strings then contain

private static GettextResourceManager Res = Util.MyResourceManager;
private static String _(String s) { return Res.GetString(s); }

and the shorthand is used like this:

Console.WriteLine(_("Operation completed."));

* You add a class with a very short name, say `S', containing just
the definition of the resource manager and of the shorthand:

public class S {
public static GettextResourceManager MyResourceManager =
new GettextResourceManager("domain-name");
public static String _(String s) {
return MyResourceManager.GetString(s);
}
}

and the shorthand is used like this:

Console.WriteLine(S._("Operation completed."));

Which of the two idioms you choose, will depend on whether copying
two lines of codes into every class is more acceptable in your project
than a class with a single-letter name.

File: gettext.info, Node: gawk, Next: Pascal, Prev: C#, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.13 GNU awk
---------------

RPMs
gawk 3.1 or newer

File extension
`awk'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`_"abc"'

gettext/ngettext functions
`dcgettext', missing `dcngettext' in gawk-3.1.0

textdomain
`TEXTDOMAIN' variable

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

setlocale
automatic, but missing `setlocale (LC_MESSAGES, "")' in gawk-3.1.0

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`printf "%2$d %1$d"' (GNU awk only)

Portability
On platforms without gettext, no translation. On non-GNU awks,
you must define `dcgettext', `dcngettext' and `bindtextdomain'
yourself.

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-gawk'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Pascal, Next: wxWidgets, Prev: gawk, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.14 Pascal - Free Pascal Compiler
-------------------------------------

RPMs
fpk

File extension
`pp', `pas'

String syntax
`'abc''

gettext shorthand
automatic

gettext/ngettext functions
--, use `ResourceString' data type instead

textdomain
--, use `TranslateResourceStrings' function instead

bindtextdomain
--, use `TranslateResourceStrings' function instead

setlocale
automatic, but uses only LANG, not LC_MESSAGES or LC_ALL

Prerequisite
`{$mode delphi}' or `{$mode objfpc}'
`uses gettext;'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
emulate partially

Extractor
`ppc386' followed by `xgettext' or `rstconv'

Formatting with positions
`uses sysutils;'
`format "%1:d %0:d"'

Portability
?

po-mode marking
--

The Pascal compiler has special support for the `ResourceString' data
type. It generates a `.rst' file. This is then converted to a `.pot'
file by use of `xgettext' or `rstconv'. At runtime, a `.mo' file
corresponding to translations of this `.pot' file can be loaded using
the `TranslateResourceStrings' function in the `gettext' unit.

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-pascal'.

File: gettext.info, Node: wxWidgets, Next: YCP, Prev: Pascal, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.15 wxWidgets library
-------------------------

RPMs
wxGTK, gettext

File extension
`cpp'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`_("abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`wxLocale::GetString', `wxGetTranslation'

textdomain
`wxLocale::AddCatalog'

bindtextdomain
`wxLocale::AddCatalogLookupPathPrefix'

setlocale
`wxLocale::Init', `wxSetLocale'

Prerequisite
`#include <wx/intl.h>'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
emulate, see `include/wx/intl.h' and `src/common/intl.cpp'

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
wxString::Format supports positions if and only if the system has
`wprintf()', `vswprintf()' functions and they support positions
according to POSIX.

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
yes

File: gettext.info, Node: YCP, Next: Tcl, Prev: wxWidgets, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.16 YCP - YaST2 scripting language
--------------------------------------

RPMs
libycp, libycp-devel, yast2-core, yast2-core-devel

File extension
`ycp'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`_("abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`_()' with 1 or 3 arguments

textdomain
`textdomain' statement

bindtextdomain
--

setlocale
--

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`sformat "%2 %1"'

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-ycp'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Tcl, Next: Perl, Prev: YCP, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.17 Tcl - Tk's scripting language
-------------------------------------

RPMs
tcl

File extension
`tcl'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`[_ "abc"]'

gettext/ngettext functions
`::msgcat::mc'

textdomain
--

bindtextdomain
--, use `::msgcat::mcload' instead

setlocale
automatic, uses LANG, but ignores LC_MESSAGES and LC_ALL

Prerequisite
`package require msgcat'
`proc _ {s} {return [::msgcat::mc $s]}'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
--, uses a Tcl specific message catalog format

Extractor
`xgettext -k_'

Formatting with positions
`format "%2\$d %1\$d"'

Portability
fully portable

po-mode marking
--

Two examples are available in the `examples' directory: `hello-tcl',
`hello-tcl-tk'.

Before marking strings as internationalizable, substitutions of
variables into the string need to be converted to `format'
applications. For example, `"file $filename not found"' becomes
`[format "file %s not found" $filename]'. Only after this is done, can
the strings be marked and extracted. After marking, this example
becomes `[format [_ "file %s not found"] $filename]' or `[msgcat::mc
"file %s not found" $filename]'. Note that the `msgcat::mc' function
implicitly calls `format' when more than one argument is given.

File: gettext.info, Node: Perl, Next: PHP, Prev: Tcl, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.18 Perl
------------

RPMs
perl

File extension
`pl', `PL', `pm', `cgi'

String syntax
* `"abc"'

* `'abc''

* `qq (abc)'

* `q (abc)'

* `qr /abc/'

* `qx (/bin/date)'

* `/pattern match/'

* `?pattern match?'

* `s/substitution/operators/'

* `$tied_hash{"message"}'

* `$tied_hash_reference->{"message"}'

* etc., issue the command `man perlsyn' for details

gettext shorthand
`__' (double underscore)

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `dgettext', `dcgettext', `ngettext', `dngettext',
`dcngettext'

textdomain
`textdomain' function

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

bind_textdomain_codeset
`bind_textdomain_codeset' function

setlocale
Use `setlocale (LC_ALL, "");'

Prerequisite
`use POSIX;'
`use Locale::TextDomain;' (included in the package libintl-perl
which is available on the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network CPAN,
http://www.cpan.org/).

Use or emulate GNU gettext
platform dependent: gettext_pp emulates, gettext_xs uses GNU
gettext

Extractor
`xgettext -k__ -k\$__ -k%__ -k__x -k__n:1,2 -k__nx:1,2 -k__xn:1,2
-kN__ -k'

Formatting with positions
Both kinds of format strings support formatting with positions.
`printf "%2\$d %1\$d", ...' (requires Perl 5.8.0 or newer)
`__expand("[new] replaces [old]", old => $oldvalue, new =>
$newvalue)'

Portability
The `libintl-perl' package is platform independent but is not part
of the Perl core. The programmer is responsible for providing a
dummy implementation of the required functions if the package is
not installed on the target system.

po-mode marking
--

Documentation
Included in `libintl-perl', available on CPAN
(http://www.cpan.org/).

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-perl'.

The `xgettext' parser backend for Perl differs significantly from
the parser backends for other programming languages, just as Perl
itself differs significantly from other programming languages. The
Perl parser backend offers many more string marking facilities than the
other backends but it also has some Perl specific limitations, the
worst probably being its imperfectness.

* Menu:

File: gettext.info, Node: General Problems, Next: Default Keywords, Up: Perl

15.5.18.1 General Problems Parsing Perl Code
............................................

It is often heard that only Perl can parse Perl. This is not true.
Perl cannot be _parsed_ at all, it can only be _executed_. Perl has
various built-in ambiguities that can only be resolved at runtime.

The following example may illustrate one common problem:

print gettext "Hello World!";

Although this example looks like a bullet-proof case of a function
invocation, it is not:

open gettext, ">testfile" or die;
print gettext "Hello world!"

In this context, the string `gettext' looks more like a file handle.
But not necessarily:

use Locale::Messages qw (:libintl_h);
open gettext ">testfile" or die;
print gettext "Hello world!";

Now, the file is probably syntactically incorrect, provided that the
module `Locale::Messages' found first in the Perl include path exports a
function `gettext'. But what if the module `Locale::Messages' really
looks like this?

use vars qw (*gettext);

In this case, the string `gettext' will be interpreted as a file
handle again, and the above example will create a file `testfile' and
write the string "Hello world!" into it. Even advanced control flow
analysis will not really help:

if (0.5 < rand) {
eval "use Sane";
} else {
eval "use InSane";
}
print gettext "Hello world!";

If the module `Sane' exports a function `gettext' that does what we
expect, and the module `InSane' opens a file for writing and associates
the _handle_ `gettext' with this output stream, we are clueless again
about what will happen at runtime. It is completely unpredictable.
The truth is that Perl has so many ways to fill its symbol table at
runtime that it is impossible to interpret a particular piece of code
without executing it.

Of course, `xgettext' will not execute your Perl sources while
scanning for translatable strings, but rather use heuristics in order
to guess what you meant.

Another problem is the ambiguity of the slash and the question mark.
Their interpretation depends on the context:

# A pattern match.
print "OK\n" if /foobar/;

# A division.
print 1 / 2;

# Another pattern match.
print "OK\n" if ?foobar?;

# Conditional.
print $x ? "foo" : "bar";

The slash may either act as the division operator or introduce a
pattern match, whereas the question mark may act as the ternary
conditional operator or as a pattern match, too. Other programming
languages like `awk' present similar problems, but the consequences of a
misinterpretation are particularly nasty with Perl sources. In `awk'
for instance, a statement can never exceed one line and the parser can
recover from a parsing error at the next newline and interpret the rest
of the input stream correctly. Perl is different, as a pattern match
is terminated by the next appearance of the delimiter (the slash or the
question mark) in the input stream, regardless of the semantic context.
If a slash is really a division sign but mis-interpreted as a pattern
match, the rest of the input file is most probably parsed incorrectly.

If you find that `xgettext' fails to extract strings from portions
of your sources, you should therefore look out for slashes and/or
question marks preceding these sections. You may have come across a
bug in `xgettext''s Perl parser (and of course you should report that
bug). In the meantime you should consider to reformulate your code in
a manner less challenging to `xgettext'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Default Keywords, Next: Special Keywords, Prev: General Problems, Up: Perl

15.5.18.2 Which keywords will xgettext look for?
................................................

Unless you instruct `xgettext' otherwise by invoking it with one of
the options `--keyword' or `-k', it will recognize the following
keywords in your Perl sources:

* `gettext'

* `dgettext'

* `dcgettext'

* `ngettext:1,2'

The first (singular) and the second (plural) argument will be
extracted.

* `dngettext:1,2'

The first (singular) and the second (plural) argument will be
extracted.

* `dcngettext:1,2'

The first (singular) and the second (plural) argument will be
extracted.

* `gettext_noop'

* `%gettext'

The keys of lookups into the hash `%gettext' will be extracted.

* `$gettext'

The keys of lookups into the hash reference `$gettext' will be
extracted.

File: gettext.info, Node: Special Keywords, Next: Quote-like Expressions, Prev: Default Keywords, Up: Perl

15.5.18.3 How to Extract Hash Keys
..................................

Translating messages at runtime is normally performed by looking up
the original string in the translation database and returning the
translated version. The "natural" Perl implementation is a hash
lookup, and, of course, `xgettext' supports such practice.

print __"Hello world!";
print $__{"Hello world!"};
print $__->{"Hello world!"};
print $$__{"Hello world!"};

The above four lines all do the same thing. The Perl module
`Locale::TextDomain' exports by default a hash `%__' that is tied to
the function `__()'. It also exports a reference `$__' to `%__'.

If an argument to the `xgettext' option `--keyword', resp. `-k'
starts with a percent sign, the rest of the keyword is interpreted as
the name of a hash. If it starts with a dollar sign, the rest of the
keyword is interpreted as a reference to a hash.

Note that you can omit the quotation marks (single or double) around
the hash key (almost) whenever Perl itself allows it:

print $gettext{Error};

The exact rule is: You can omit the surrounding quotes, when the hash
key is a valid C (!) identifier, i.e. when it starts with an underscore
or an ASCII letter and is followed by an arbitrary number of
underscores, ASCII letters or digits. Other Unicode characters are
_not_ allowed, regardless of the `use utf8' pragma.

File: gettext.info, Node: Quote-like Expressions, Next: Interpolation I, Prev: Special Keywords, Up: Perl

15.5.18.4 What are Strings And Quote-like Expressions?
......................................................

Perl offers a plethora of different string constructs. Those that
can be used either as arguments to functions or inside braces for hash
lookups are generally supported by `xgettext'.

* *double-quoted strings*
print gettext "Hello World!";

* *single-quoted strings*
print gettext 'Hello World!';

* *the operator qq*
print gettext qq |Hello World!|;
print gettext qq <E-mail: <guido\@imperia.net>>;

The operator `qq' is fully supported. You can use arbitrary
delimiters, including the four bracketing delimiters (round, angle,
square, curly) that nest.

* *the operator q*
print gettext q |Hello World!|;
print gettext q <E-mail: <guido@imperia.net>>;

The operator `q' is fully supported. You can use arbitrary
delimiters, including the four bracketing delimiters (round, angle,
square, curly) that nest.

* *the operator qx*
print gettext qx ;LANGUAGE=C /bin/date;
print gettext qx [/usr/bin/ls | grep '^[A-Z]*'];

The operator `qx' is fully supported. You can use arbitrary
delimiters, including the four bracketing delimiters (round, angle,
square, curly) that nest.

The example is actually a useless use of `gettext'. It will
invoke the `gettext' function on the output of the command
specified with the `qx' operator. The feature was included in
order to make the interface consistent (the parser will extract
all strings and quote-like expressions).

* *here documents*
print gettext <<'EOF';
program not found in $PATH
EOF

print ngettext <<EOF, <<"EOF";
one file deleted
EOF
several files deleted
EOF

Here-documents are recognized. If the delimiter is enclosed in
single quotes, the string is not interpolated. If it is enclosed
in double quotes or has no quotes at all, the string is
interpolated.

Delimiters that start with a digit are not supported!

File: gettext.info, Node: Interpolation I, Next: Interpolation II, Prev: Quote-like Expressions, Up: Perl

15.5.18.5 Invalid Uses Of String Interpolation
..............................................

Perl is capable of interpolating variables into strings. This offers
some nice features in localized programs but can also lead to problems.

A common error is a construct like the following:

print gettext "This is the program $0!\n";

Perl will interpolate at runtime the value of the variable `$0' into
the argument of the `gettext()' function. Hence, this argument is not
a string constant but a variable argument (`$0' is a global variable
that holds the name of the Perl script being executed). The
interpolation is performed by Perl before the string argument is passed
to `gettext()' and will therefore depend on the name of the script
which can only be determined at runtime. Consequently, it is almost
impossible that a translation can be looked up at runtime (except if,
by accident, the interpolated string is found in the message catalog).

The `xgettext' program will therefore terminate parsing with a fatal
error if it encounters a variable inside of an extracted string. In
general, this will happen for all kinds of string interpolations that
cannot be safely performed at compile time. If you absolutely know
what you are doing, you can always circumvent this behavior:

my $know_what_i_am_doing = "This is program $0!\n";
print gettext $know_what_i_am_doing;

Since the parser only recognizes strings and quote-like expressions,
but not variables or other terms, the above construct will be accepted.
You will have to find another way, however, to let your original
string make it into your message catalog.

If invoked with the option `--extract-all', resp. `-a', variable
interpolation will be accepted. Rationale: You will generally use this
option in order to prepare your sources for internationalization.

Please see the manual page `man perlop' for details of strings and
quote-like expressions that are subject to interpolation and those that
are not. Safe interpolations (that will not lead to a fatal error) are:

* the escape sequences `\t' (tab, HT, TAB), `\n' (newline, NL), `\r'
(return, CR), `\f' (form feed, FF), `\b' (backspace, BS), `\a'
(alarm, bell, BEL), and `\e' (escape, ESC).

* octal chars, like `\033'
Note that octal escapes in the range of 400-777 are translated
into a UTF-8 representation, regardless of the presence of the
`use utf8' pragma.

* hex chars, like `\x1b'

* wide hex chars, like `\x{263a}'
Note that this escape is translated into a UTF-8 representation,
regardless of the presence of the `use utf8' pragma.

* control chars, like `\c[' (CTRL-[)

* named Unicode chars, like `\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA}'
Note that this escape is translated into a UTF-8 representation,
regardless of the presence of the `use utf8' pragma.

The following escapes are considered partially safe:

* `\l' lowercase next char

* `\u' uppercase next char

* `\L' lowercase till \E

* `\U' uppercase till \E

* `\E' end case modification

* `\Q' quote non-word characters till \E

These escapes are only considered safe if the string consists of
ASCII characters only. Translation of characters outside the range
defined by ASCII is locale-dependent and can actually only be performed
at runtime; `xgettext' doesn't do these locale-dependent translations
at extraction time.

Except for the modifier `\Q', these translations, albeit valid, are
generally useless and only obfuscate your sources. If a translation
can be safely performed at compile time you can just as well write what
you mean.

File: gettext.info, Node: Interpolation II, Next: Parentheses, Prev: Interpolation I, Up: Perl

15.5.18.6 Valid Uses Of String Interpolation
............................................

Perl is often used to generate sources for other programming
languages or arbitrary file formats. Web applications that output HTML
code make a prominent example for such usage.

You will often come across situations where you want to intersperse
code written in the target (programming) language with translatable
messages, like in the following HTML example:

print gettext <<EOF;
<h1>My Homepage</h1>
<script language="JavaScript"></script>
EOF

The parser will extract the entire here document, and it will appear
entirely in the resulting PO file, including the JavaScript snippet
embedded in the HTML code. If you exaggerate with constructs like the
above, you will run the risk that the translators of your package will
look out for a less challenging project. You should consider an
alternative expression here:

print <<EOF;
<h1>$gettext{"My Homepage"}</h1>
<script language="JavaScript"></script>
EOF

Only the translatable portions of the code will be extracted here,
and the resulting PO file will begrudgingly improve in terms of
readability.

You can interpolate hash lookups in all strings or quote-like
expressions that are subject to interpolation (see the manual page `man
perlop' for details). Double interpolation is invalid, however:

# TRANSLATORS: Replace "the earth" with the name of your planet.
print gettext qq{Welcome to $gettext->{"the earth"}};

The `qq'-quoted string is recognized as an argument to `xgettext' in
the first place, and checked for invalid variable interpolation. The
dollar sign of hash-dereferencing will therefore terminate the parser
with an "invalid interpolation" error.

It is valid to interpolate hash lookups in regular expressions:

if ($var =~ /$gettext{"the earth"}/) {
print gettext "Match!\n";
}
s/$gettext{"U. S. A."}/$gettext{"U. S. A."} $gettext{"(dial +0)"}/g;

File: gettext.info, Node: Parentheses, Next: Long Lines, Prev: Interpolation II, Up: Perl

15.5.18.7 When To Use Parentheses
.................................

In Perl, parentheses around function arguments are mostly optional.
`xgettext' will always assume that all recognized keywords (except for
hashes and hash references) are names of properly prototyped functions,
and will (hopefully) only require parentheses where Perl itself
requires them. All constructs in the following example are therefore
ok to use:

print gettext ("Hello World!\n");
print gettext "Hello World!\n";
print dgettext ($package => "Hello World!\n");
print dgettext $package, "Hello World!\n";

# The "fat comma" => turns the left-hand side argument into a
# single-quoted string!
print dgettext smellovision => "Hello World!\n";

# The following assignment only works with prototyped functions.
# Otherwise, the functions will act as "greedy" list operators and
# eat up all following arguments.
my $anonymous_hash = {
planet => gettext "earth",
cakes => ngettext "one cake", "several cakes", $n,
still => $works,
};
# The same without fat comma:
my $other_hash = {
'planet', gettext "earth",
'cakes', ngettext "one cake", "several cakes", $n,
'still', $works,
};

# Parentheses are only significant for the first argument.
print dngettext 'package', ("one cake", "several cakes", $n), $discarded;

File: gettext.info, Node: Long Lines, Next: Perl Pitfalls, Prev: Parentheses, Up: Perl

15.5.18.8 How To Grok with Long Lines
.....................................

The necessity of long messages can often lead to a cumbersome or
unreadable coding style. Perl has several options that may prevent you
from writing unreadable code, and `xgettext' does its best to do
likewise. This is where the dot operator (the string concatenation
operator) may come in handy:

print gettext ("This is a very long"
. " message that is still"
. " readable, because"
. " it is split into"
. " multiple lines.\n");

Perl is smart enough to concatenate these constant string fragments
into one long string at compile time, and so is `xgettext'. You will
only find one long message in the resulting POT file.

Note that the future Perl 6 will probably use the underscore (`_')
as the string concatenation operator, and the dot (`.') for
dereferencing. This new syntax is not yet supported by `xgettext'.

If embedded newline characters are not an issue, or even desired, you
may also insert newline characters inside quoted strings wherever you
feel like it:

print gettext ("<em>In HTML output
embedded newlines are generally no
problem, since adjacent whitespace
is always rendered into a single
space character.</em>");

You may also consider to use here documents:

print gettext <<EOF;
<em>In HTML output
embedded newlines are generally no
problem, since adjacent whitespace
is always rendered into a single
space character.</em>
EOF

Please do not forget that the line breaks are real, i.e. they
translate into newline characters that will consequently show up in the
resulting POT file.

File: gettext.info, Node: Perl Pitfalls, Prev: Long Lines, Up: Perl

15.5.18.9 Bugs, Pitfalls, And Things That Do Not Work
.....................................................

The foregoing sections should have proven that `xgettext' is quite
smart in extracting translatable strings from Perl sources. Yet, some
more or less exotic constructs that could be expected to work, actually
do not work.

One of the more relevant limitations can be found in the
implementation of variable interpolation inside quoted strings. Only
simple hash lookups can be used there:

print <<EOF;
$gettext{"The dot operator"
. " does not work"
. "here!"}
Likewise, you cannot @{[ gettext ("interpolate function calls") ]}
inside quoted strings or quote-like expressions.
EOF

This is valid Perl code and will actually trigger invocations of the
`gettext' function at runtime. Yet, the Perl parser in `xgettext' will
fail to recognize the strings. A less obvious example can be found in
the interpolation of regular expressions:

s//gettext ("Sunday")/e;

The modifier `e' will cause the substitution to be interpreted as an
evaluable statement. Consequently, at runtime the function `gettext()'
is called, but again, the parser fails to extract the string "Sunday".
Use a temporary variable as a simple workaround if you really happen to
need this feature:

my $sunday = gettext "Sunday";
s//$sunday/;

Hash slices would also be handy but are not recognized:

my @weekdays = @gettext{'Sunday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',
'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday'};
# Or even:
@weekdays = @gettext{qw (Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday
Friday Saturday) };

This is perfectly valid usage of the tied hash `%gettext' but the
strings are not recognized and therefore will not be extracted.

Another caveat of the current version is its rudimentary support for
non-ASCII characters in identifiers. You may encounter serious
problems if you use identifiers with characters outside the range of
'A'-'Z', 'a'-'z', '0'-'9' and the underscore '_'.

Maybe some of these missing features will be implemented in future
versions, but since you can always make do without them at minimal
effort, these todos have very low priority.

A nasty problem are brace format strings that already contain braces
as part of the normal text, for example the usage strings typically
encountered in programs:

die "usage: $0 {OPTIONS} FILENAME...\n";

If you want to internationalize this code with Perl brace format
strings, you will run into a problem:

die __x ("usage: {program} {OPTIONS} FILENAME...\n", program => $0);

Whereas `{program}' is a placeholder, `{OPTIONS}' is not and should
probably be translated. Yet, there is no way to teach the Perl parser
in `xgettext' to recognize the first one, and leave the other one alone.

There are two possible work-arounds for this problem. If you are
sure that your program will run under Perl 5.8.0 or newer (these Perl
versions handle positional parameters in `printf()') or if you are sure
that the translator will not have to reorder the arguments in her
translation - for example if you have only one brace placeholder in
your string, or if it describes a syntax, like in this one -, you can
mark the string as `no-perl-brace-format' and use `printf()':

# xgettext: no-perl-brace-format
die sprintf ("usage: %s {OPTIONS} FILENAME...\n", $0);

If you want to use the more portable Perl brace format, you will
have to do put placeholders in place of the literal braces:

die __x ("usage: {program} {[}OPTIONS{]} FILENAME...\n",
program => $0, '[' => '{', ']' => '}');

Perl brace format strings know no escaping mechanism. No matter how
this escaping mechanism looked like, it would either give the
programmer a hard time, make translating Perl brace format strings
heavy-going, or result in a performance penalty at runtime, when the
format directives get executed. Most of the time you will happily get
along with `printf()' for this special case.

File: gettext.info, Node: PHP, Next: Pike, Prev: Perl, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.19 PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
----------------------------------

RPMs
mod_php4, mod_php4-core, phpdoc

File extension
`php', `php3', `php4'

String syntax
`"abc"', `'abc''

gettext shorthand
`_("abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `dgettext', `dcgettext'; starting with PHP 4.2.0 also
`ngettext', `dngettext', `dcngettext'

textdomain
`textdomain' function

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

setlocale
Programmer must call `setlocale (LC_ALL, "")'

Prerequisite
--

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
`xgettext'

Formatting with positions
`printf "%2\$d %1\$d"'

Portability
On platforms without gettext, the functions are not available.

po-mode marking
--

An example is available in the `examples' directory: `hello-php'.

File: gettext.info, Node: Pike, Next: GCC-source, Prev: PHP, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.20 Pike
------------

RPMs
roxen

File extension
`pike'

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
--

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `dgettext', `dcgettext'

textdomain
`textdomain' function

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

setlocale
`setlocale' function

Prerequisite
`import Locale.Gettext;'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
use

Extractor
--

Formatting with positions
--

Portability
On platforms without gettext, the functions are not available.

po-mode marking
--

File: gettext.info, Node: GCC-source, Prev: Pike, Up: List of Programming Languages

15.5.21 GNU Compiler Collection sources
---------------------------------------

RPMs
gcc

File extension
`c', `h'.

String syntax
`"abc"'

gettext shorthand
`_("abc")'

gettext/ngettext functions
`gettext', `dgettext', `dcgettext', `ngettext', `dngettext',
`dcngettext'

textdomain
`textdomain' function

bindtextdomain
`bindtextdomain' function

setlocale
Programmer must call `setlocale (LC_ALL, "")'

Prerequisite
`#include "intl.h"'

Use or emulate GNU gettext
Use

Extractor
`xgettext -k_'

Formatting with positions
--

Portability
Uses autoconf macros

po-mode marking
yes

File: gettext.info, Node: List of Data Formats, Prev: List of Programming Languages, Up: Programming Languages

15.6 Internationalizable Data
=============================

Here is a list of other data formats which can be internationalized
using GNU gettext.

* Menu:

* POT:: POT - Portable Object Template
* RST:: Resource String Table
* Glade:: Glade - GNOME user interface description

File: gettext.info, Node: POT, Next: RST, Prev: List of Data Formats, Up: List of Data Formats

15.6.1 POT - Portable Object Template
-------------------------------------

RPMs
gettext

File extension
`pot', `po'

Extractor
`xgettext'

File: gettext.info, Node: RST, Next: Glade, Prev: POT, Up: List of Data Formats

15.6.2 Resource String Table
----------------------------

RPMs
fpk

File extension
`rst'

Extractor
`xgettext', `rstconv'

File: gettext.info, Node: Glade, Prev: RST, Up: List of Data Formats

15.6.3 Glade - GNOME user interface description
-----------------------------------------------

RPMs
glade, libglade, glade2, libglade2, intltool

File extension
`glade', `glade2'

Extractor
`xgettext', `libglade-xgettext', `xml-i18n-extract',
`intltool-extract'

File: gettext.info, Node: Conclusion, Next: Language Codes, Prev: Programming Languages, Up: Top

16 Concluding Remarks
*********************

We would like to conclude this GNU `gettext' manual by presenting an
history of the Translation Project so far. We finally give a few
pointers for those who want to do further research or readings about
Native Language Support matters.

* Menu:

* History:: History of GNU `gettext'
* References:: Related Readings

File: gettext.info, Node: History, Next: References, Prev: Conclusion, Up: Conclusion

16.1 History of GNU `gettext'
=============================

Internationalization concerns and algorithms have been informally
and casually discussed for years in GNU, sometimes around GNU `libc',
maybe around the incoming `Hurd', or otherwise (nobody clearly
remembers). And even then, when the work started for real, this was
somewhat independently of these previous discussions.

This all began in July 1994, when Patrick D'Cruze had the idea and
initiative of internationalizing version 3.9.2 of GNU `fileutils'. He
then asked Jim Meyering, the maintainer, how to get those changes
folded into an official release. That first draft was full of
`#ifdef's and somewhat disconcerting, and Jim wanted to find nicer
ways. Patrick and Jim shared some tries and experimentations in this
area. Then, feeling that this might eventually have a deeper impact on
GNU, Jim wanted to know what standards were, and contacted Richard
Stallman, who very quickly and verbally described an overall design for
what was meant to become `glocale', at that time.

Jim implemented `glocale' and got a lot of exhausting feedback from
Patrick and Richard, of course, but also from Mitchum DSouza (who wrote
a `catgets'-like package), Roland McGrath, maybe David MacKenzie,
Franc,ois Pinard, and Paul Eggert, all pushing and pulling in various
directions, not always compatible, to the extent that after a couple of
test releases, `glocale' was torn apart. In particular, Paul Eggert -
always keeping an eye on developments in Solaris - advocated the use of
the `gettext' API over `glocale''s `catgets'-based API.

While Jim took some distance and time and became dad for a second
time, Roland wanted to get GNU `libc' internationalized, and got Ulrich
Drepper involved in that project. Instead of starting from `glocale',
Ulrich rewrote something from scratch, but more conforming to the set
of guidelines who emerged out of the `glocale' effort. Then, Ulrich
got people from the previous forum to involve themselves into this new
project, and the switch from `glocale' to what was first named
`msgutils', renamed `nlsutils', and later `gettext', became officially
accepted by Richard in May 1995 or so.

Let's summarize by saying that Ulrich Drepper wrote GNU `gettext' in
April 1995. The first official release of the package, including PO
mode, occurred in July 1995, and was numbered 0.7. Other people
contributed to the effort by providing a discussion forum around
Ulrich, writing little pieces of code, or testing. These are quoted in
the `THANKS' file which comes with the GNU `gettext' distribution.

While this was being done, Franc,ois adapted half a dozen of GNU
packages to `glocale' first, then later to `gettext', putting them in
pretest, so providing along the way an effective user environment for
fine tuning the evolving tools. He also took the responsibility of
organizing and coordinating the Translation Project. After nearly a
year of informal exchanges between people from many countries,
translator teams started to exist in May 1995, through the creation and
support by Patrick D'Cruze of twenty unmoderated mailing lists for that
many native languages, and two moderated lists: one for reaching all
teams at once, the other for reaching all willing maintainers of
internationalized free software packages.

Franc,ois also wrote PO mode in June 1995 with the collaboration of
Greg McGary, as a kind of contribution to Ulrich's package. He also
gave a hand with the GNU `gettext' Texinfo manual.

In 1997, Ulrich Drepper released the GNU libc 2.0, which included the
`gettext', `textdomain' and `bindtextdomain' functions.

In 2000, Ulrich Drepper added plural form handling (the `ngettext'
function) to GNU libc. Later, in 2001, he released GNU libc 2.2.x,
which is the first free C library with full internationalization
support.

Ulrich being quite busy in his role of General Maintainer of GNU
libc, he handed over the GNU `gettext' maintenance to Bruno Haible in
2000. Bruno added the plural form handling to the tools as well, added
support for UTF-8 and CJK locales, and wrote a few new tools for
manipulating PO files.

File: gettext.info, Node: References, Prev: History, Up: Conclusion

16.2 Related Readings
=====================

* NOTE: * This documentation section is outdated and needs to be
revised.

Eugene H. Dorr (`dorre@well.com') maintains an interesting
bibliography on internationalization matters, called
`Internationalization Reference List', which is available as:
ftp://ftp.ora.com/pub/examples/nutshell/ujip/doc/i18n-books.txt

Michael Gschwind (`mike@vlsivie.tuwien.ac.at') maintains a
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) list, entitled `Programming for
Internationalisation'. This FAQ discusses writing programs which can
handle different language conventions, character sets, etc.; and is
applicable to all character set encodings, with particular emphasis on
ISO 8859-1. It is regularly published in Usenet groups
`comp.unix.questions', `comp.std.internat',
`comp.software.international', `comp.lang.c', `comp.windows.x',
`comp.std.c', `comp.answers' and `news.answers'. The home location of
this document is:
ftp://ftp.vlsivie.tuwien.ac.at/pub/8bit/ISO-programming

Patrick D'Cruze (`pdcruze@li.org') wrote a tutorial about NLS
matters, and Jochen Hein (`Hein@student.tu-clausthal.de') took over the
responsibility of maintaining it. It may be found as:
ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/utils/nls/catalogs/Incoming/...
...locale-tutorial-0.8.txt.gz
This site is mirrored in:
ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/linux/sunsite/

A French version of the same tutorial should be findable at:
ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/linux/french/docs/
together with French translations of many Linux-related documents.

File: gettext.info, Node: Language Codes, Next: Country Codes, Prev: Conclusion, Up: Top

Appendix A Language Codes
*************************

The ISO 639 standard defines two-letter codes for many languages, and
three-letter codes for more rarely used languages. All abbreviations
for languages used in the Translation Project should come from this
standard.

* Menu:

* Usual Language Codes:: Two-letter ISO 639 language codes
* Rare Language Codes:: Three-letter ISO 639 language codes

File: gettext.info, Node: Usual Language Codes, Next: Rare Language Codes, Prev: Language Codes, Up: Language Codes

A.1 Usual Language Codes
========================

For the commonly used languages, the ISO 639-1 standard defines
two-letter codes.

`aa'
Afar.

`ab'
Abkhazian.

`ad'
Adangme.

`ae'
Avestan.

`af'
Afrikaans.

`ak'
Akan.

`am'
Amharic.

`an'
Aragonese.

`ar'
Arabic.

`as'
Assamese.

`av'
Avaric.

`ay'
Aymara.

`az'
Azerbaijani.

`ba'
Bashkir.

`be'
Byelorussian; Belarusian.

`bg'
Bulgarian.

`bh'
Bihari.

`bi'
Bislama.

`bm'
Bambara.

`bn'
Bengali; Bangla.

`bo'
Tibetan.

`br'
Breton.

`bs'
Bosnian.

`ca'
Catalan.

`ce'
Chechen.

`ch'
Chamorro.

`co'
Corsican.

`cr'
Cree.

`cs'
Czech.

`cu'
Church Slavic.

`cv'
Chuvash.

`cy'
Welsh.

`da'
Danish.

`de'
German.

`dv'
Divehi; Maldivian.

`dz'
Dzongkha; Bhutani.

`ee'
E'we'.

`el'
Greek.

`en'
English.

`eo'
Esperanto.

`es'
Spanish.

`et'
Estonian.

`eu'
Basque.

`fa'
Persian.

`ff'
Fulah.

`fi'
Finnish.

`fj'
Fijian; Fiji.

`fo'
Faroese.

`fr'
French.

`fy'
Western Frisian.

`ga'
Irish.

`gd'
Scots; Gaelic.

`gl'
Galician.

`gn'
Guarani.

`gu'
Gujarati.

`gv'
Manx.

`ha'
Hausa.

`he'
Hebrew (formerly iw).

`hi'
Hindi.

`ho'
Hiri Motu.

`hr'
Croatian.

`ht'
Haitian; Haitian Creole.

`hu'
Hungarian.

`hy'
Armenian.

`hz'
Herero.

`ia'
Interlingua.

`id'
Indonesian (formerly in).

`ie'
Interlingue.

`ig'
Igbo.

`ii'
Sichuan Yi.

`ik'
Inupiak; Inupiaq.

`io'
Ido.

`is'
Icelandic.

`it'
Italian.

`iu'
Inuktitut.

`ja'
Japanese.

`jv'
Javanese.

`ka'
Georgian.

`kg'
Kongo.

`ki'
Kikuyu; Gikuyu.

`kj'
Kuanyama; Kwanyama.

`kk'
Kazakh.

`kl'
Kalaallisut; Greenlandic.

`km'
Khmer; Cambodian.

`kn'
Kannada.

`ko'
Korean.

`kr'
Kanuri.

`ks'
Kashmiri.

`ku'
Kurdish.

`kv'
Komi.

`kw'
Cornish.

`ky'
Kirghiz.

`la'
Latin.

`lb'
Letzeburgesch; Luxembourgish.

`lg'
Ganda.

`li'
Limburgish; Limburger; Limburgan.

`ln'
Lingala.

`lo'
Lao; Laotian.

`lt'
Lithuanian.

`lu'
Luba-Katanga.

`lv'
Latvian; Lettish.

`mg'
Malagasy.

`mh'
Marshallese.

`mi'
Maori.

`mk'
Macedonian.

`ml'
Malayalam.

`mn'
Mongolian.

`mo'
Moldavian.

`mr'
Marathi.

`ms'
Malay.

`mt'
Maltese.

`my'
Burmese.

`na'
Nauru.

`nb'
Norwegian Bokmaal.

`nd'
Ndebele, North.

`ne'
Nepali.

`ng'
Ndonga.

`nl'
Dutch.

`nn'
Norwegian Nynorsk.

`no'
Norwegian.

`nr'
Ndebele, South.

`nv'
Navajo; Navaho.

`ny'
Chichewa; Nyanja.

`oc'
Occitan; Provenc,al.

`oj'
Ojibwa.

`om'
(Afan) Oromo.

`or'
Oriya.

`os'
Ossetian; Ossetic.

`pa'
Panjabi; Punjabi.

`pi'
Pali.

`pl'
Polish.

`ps'
Pashto, Pushto.

`pt'
Portuguese.

`qu'
Quechua.

`rm'
Rhaeto-Romance.

`rn'
Rundi; Kirundi.

`ro'
Romanian.

`ru'
Russian.

`rw'
Kinyarwanda.

`sa'
Sanskrit.

`sc'
Sardinian.

`sd'
Sindhi.

`se'
Northern Sami.

`sg'
Sango; Sangro.

`si'
Sinhala; Sinhalese.

`sk'
Slovak.

`sl'
Slovenian.

`sm'
Samoan.

`sn'
Shona.

`so'
Somali.

`sq'
Albanian.

`sr'
Serbian.

`ss'
Swati; Siswati.

`st'
Sesotho; Sotho, Southern.

`su'
Sundanese.

`sv'
Swedish.

`sw'
Swahili.

`ta'
Tamil.

`te'
Telugu.

`tg'
Tajik.

`th'
Thai.

`ti'
Tigrinya.

`tk'
Turkmen.

`tl'
Tagalog.

`tn'
Tswana; Setswana.

`to'
Tonga.

`tr'
Turkish.

`ts'
Tsonga.

`tt'
Tatar.

`tw'
Twi.

`ty'
Tahitian.

`ug'
Uighur.

`uk'
Ukrainian.

`ur'
Urdu.

`uz'
Uzbek.

`ve'
Venda.

`vi'
Vietnamese.

`vo'
Volapu"k; Volapuk.

`wa'
Walloon.

`wo'
Wolof.

`xh'
Xhosa.

`yi'
Yiddish (formerly ji).

`yo'
Yoruba.

`za'
Zhuang.

`zh'
Chinese.

`zu'
Zulu.

File: gettext.info, Node: Rare Language Codes, Prev: Usual Language Codes, Up: Language Codes

A.2 Rare Language Codes
=======================

For rarely used languages, the ISO 639-2 standard defines
three-letter codes. Here is the current list, reduced to only living
languages with at least one million of speakers.

`ace'
Achinese.

`awa'
Awadhi.

`bad'
Banda.

`bal'
Baluchi.

`ban'
Balinese.

`bem'
Bemba.

`bho'
Bhojpuri.

`bik'
Bikol.

`bin'
Bini.

`btk'
Batak (Indonesia).

`bug'
Buginese.

`ceb'
Cebuano.

`din'
Dinka.

`doi'
Dogri.

`fil'
Filipino; Pilipino.

`fon'
Fon.

`gon'
Gondi.

`gsw'
Alemani; Swiss German.

`hil'
Hiligaynon.

`hmn'
Hmong.

`ilo'
Iloko.

`kab'
Kabyle.

`kam'
Kamba.

`kbd'
Kabardian.

`kmb'
Kimbundu.

`kok'
Konkani.

`kru'
Kurukh.

`lua'
Luba-Lulua.

`luo'
Luo (Kenya and Tanzania).

`mad'
Madurese.

`mag'
Magahi.

`mai'
Maithili.

`mak'
Makasar.

`man'
Mandingo.

`men'
Mende.

`min'
Minangkabau.

`mni'
Manipuri.

`mos'
Mossi.

`mwr'
Marwari.

`nap'
Neapolitan.

`nso'
Pedi; Sepedi; Northern Sotho.

`nym'
Nyamwezi.

`nyn'
Nyankole.

`pag'
Pangasinan.

`pam'
Pampanga.

`raj'
Rajasthani.

`sas'
Sasak.

`sat'
Santali.

`scn'
Sicilian.

`shn'
Shan.

`sid'
Sidamo.

`srr'
Serer.

`suk'
Sukuma.

`sus'
Susu.

`tem'
Timne.

`tiv'
Tiv.

`tum'
Tumbuka.

`umb'
Umbundu.

`wal'
Walamo.

`war'
Waray.

`yao'
Yao.

File: gettext.info, Node: Country Codes, Next: Licenses, Prev: Language Codes, Up: Top

Appendix B Country Codes
************************

The ISO 3166 standard defines two character codes for many countries
and territories. All abbreviations for countries used in the
Translation Project should come from this standard.

`AD'
Andorra.

`AE'
United Arab Emirates.

`AF'
Afghanistan.

`AG'
Antigua and Barbuda.

`AI'
Anguilla.

`AL'
Albania.

`AM'
Armenia.

`AN'
Netherlands Antilles.

`AO'
Angola.

`AQ'
Antarctica.

`AR'
Argentina.

`AS'
Samoa (American).

`AT'
Austria.

`AU'
Australia.

`AW'
Aruba.

`AX'
Aaland Islands.

`AZ'
Azerbaijan.

`BA'
Bosnia and Herzegovina.

`BB'
Barbados.

`BD'
Bangladesh.

`BE'
Belgium.

`BF'
Burkina Faso.

`BG'
Bulgaria.

`BH'
Bahrain.

`BI'
Burundi.

`BJ'
Benin.

`BM'
Bermuda.

`BN'
Brunei.

`BO'
Bolivia.

`BR'
Brazil.

`BS'
Bahamas.

`BT'
Bhutan.

`BV'
Bouvet Island.

`BW'
Botswana.

`BY'
Belarus.

`BZ'
Belize.

`CA'
Canada.

`CC'
Cocos (Keeling) Islands.

`CD'
Congo (Dem. Rep.).

`CF'
Central African Republic.

`CG'
Congo (Rep.).

`CH'
Switzerland.

`CI'
Co^te d'Ivoire.

`CK'
Cook Islands.

`CL'
Chile.

`CM'
Cameroon.

`CN'
China.

`CO'
Colombia.

`CR'
Costa Rica.

`CU'
Cuba.

`CV'
Cape Verde.

`CX'
Christmas Island.

`CY'
Cyprus.

`CZ'
Czech Republic.

`DE'
Germany.

`DJ'
Djibouti.

`DK'
Denmark.

`DM'
Dominica.

`DO'
Dominican Republic.

`DZ'
Algeria.

`EC'
Ecuador.

`EE'
Estonia.

`EG'
Egypt.

`EH'
Western Sahara.

`ER'
Eritrea.

`ES'
Spain.

`ET'
Ethiopia.

`FI'
Finland.

`FJ'
Fiji.

`FK'
Falkland Islands.

`FM'
Micronesia.

`FO'
Faeroe Islands.

`FR'
France.

`GA'
Gabon.

`GB'
Britain (United Kingdom).

`GD'
Grenada.

`GE'
Georgia.

`GF'
French Guiana.

`GG'
Guernsey.

`GH'
Ghana.

`GI'
Gibraltar.

`GL'
Greenland.

`GM'
Gambia.

`GN'
Guinea.

`GP'
Guadeloupe.

`GQ'
Equatorial Guinea.

`GR'
Greece.

`GS'
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

`GT'
Guatemala.

`GU'
Guam.

`GW'
Guinea-Bissau.

`GY'
Guyana.

`HK'
Hong Kong.

`HM'
Heard Island and McDonald Islands.

`HN'
Honduras.

`HR'
Croatia.

`HT'
Haiti.

`HU'
Hungary.

`ID'
Indonesia.

`IE'
Ireland.

`IL'
Israel.

`IM'
Isle of Man.

`IN'
India.

`IO'
British Indian Ocean Territory.

`IQ'
Iraq.

`IR'
Iran.

`IS'
Iceland.

`IT'
Italy.

`JE'
Jersey.

`JM'
Jamaica.

`JO'
Jordan.

`JP'
Japan.

`KE'
Kenya.

`KG'
Kyrgyzstan.

`KH'
Cambodia.

`KI'
Kiribati.

`KM'
Comoros.

`KN'
St Kitts and Nevis.

`KP'
Korea (North).

`KR'
Korea (South).

`KW'
Kuwait.

`KY'
Cayman Islands.

`KZ'
Kazakhstan.

`LA'
Laos.

`LB'
Lebanon.

`LC'
St Lucia.

`LI'
Liechtenstein.

`LK'
Sri Lanka.

`LR'
Liberia.

`LS'
Lesotho.

`LT'
Lithuania.

`LU'
Luxembourg.

`LV'
Latvia.

`LY'
Libya.

`MA'
Morocco.

`MC'
Monaco.

`MD'
Moldova.

`ME'
Montenegro.

`MG'
Madagascar.

`MH'
Marshall Islands.

`MK'
Macedonia.

`ML'
Mali.

`MM'
Myanmar (Burma).

`MN'
Mongolia.

`MO'
Macao.

`MP'
Northern Mariana Islands.

`MQ'
Martinique.

`MR'
Mauritania.

`MS'
Montserrat.

`MT'
Malta.

`MU'
Mauritius.

`MV'
Maldives.

`MW'
Malawi.

`MX'
Mexico.

`MY'
Malaysia.

`MZ'
Mozambique.

`NA'
Namibia.

`NC'
New Caledonia.

`NE'
Niger.

`NF'
Norfolk Island.

`NG'
Nigeria.

`NI'
Nicaragua.

`NL'
Netherlands.

`NO'
Norway.

`NP'
Nepal.

`NR'
Nauru.

`NU'
Niue.

`NZ'
New Zealand.

`OM'
Oman.

`PA'
Panama.

`PE'
Peru.

`PF'
French Polynesia.

`PG'
Papua New Guinea.

`PH'
Philippines.

`PK'
Pakistan.

`PL'
Poland.

`PM'
St Pierre and Miquelon.

`PN'
Pitcairn.

`PR'
Puerto Rico.

`PS'
Palestine.

`PT'
Portugal.

`PW'
Palau.

`PY'
Paraguay.

`QA'
Qatar.

`RE'
Reunion.

`RO'
Romania.

`RS'
Serbia.

`RU'
Russia.

`RW'
Rwanda.

`SA'
Saudi Arabia.

`SB'
Solomon Islands.

`SC'
Seychelles.

`SD'
Sudan.

`SE'
Sweden.

`SG'
Singapore.

`SH'
St Helena.

`SI'
Slovenia.

`SJ'
Svalbard and Jan Mayen.

`SK'
Slovakia.

`SL'
Sierra Leone.

`SM'
San Marino.

`SN'
Senegal.

`SO'
Somalia.

`SR'
Suriname.

`ST'
Sao Tome and Principe.

`SV'
El Salvador.

`SY'
Syria.

`SZ'
Swaziland.

`TC'
Turks and Caicos Islands.

`TD'
Chad.

`TF'
French Southern and Antarctic Lands.

`TG'
Togo.

`TH'
Thailand.

`TJ'
Tajikistan.

`TK'
Tokelau.

`TL'
Timor-Leste.

`TM'
Turkmenistan.

`TN'
Tunisia.

`TO'
Tonga.

`TR'
Turkey.

`TT'
Trinidad and Tobago.

`TV'
Tuvalu.

`TW'
Taiwan.

`TZ'
Tanzania.

`UA'
Ukraine.

`UG'
Uganda.

`UM'
US minor outlying islands.

`US'
United States.

`UY'
Uruguay.

`UZ'
Uzbekistan.

`VA'
Vatican City.

`VC'
St Vincent and the Grenadines.

`VE'
Venezuela.

`VG'
Virgin Islands (UK).

`VI'
Virgin Islands (US).

`VN'
Vietnam.

`VU'
Vanuatu.

`WF'
Wallis and Futuna.

`WS'
Samoa (Western).

`YE'
Yemen.

`YT'
Mayotte.

`ZA'
South Africa.

`ZM'
Zambia.

`ZW'
Zimbabwe.

File: gettext.info, Node: Licenses, Next: Program Index, Prev: Country Codes, Up: Top

Appendix C Licenses
*******************

The files of this package are covered by the licenses indicated in
each particular file or directory. Here is a summary:

* The `libintl' and `libasprintf' libraries are covered by the GNU
Library General Public License (LGPL). A copy of the license is
included in *Note GNU LGPL::.

* The executable programs of this package and the `libgettextpo'
library are covered by the GNU General Public License (GPL). A
copy of the license is included in *Note GNU GPL::.

* This manual is free documentation. It is dually licensed under the
GNU FDL and the GNU GPL. This means that you can redistribute this
manual under either of these two licenses, at your choice.
This manual is covered by the GNU FDL. Permission is granted to
copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the
GNU Free Documentation License (FDL), either version 1.2 of the
License, or (at your option) any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation (FSF); with no Invariant Sections, with no
Front-Cover Text, and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in *Note GNU FDL::.
This manual is covered by the GNU GPL. You can redistribute it
and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License
(GPL), either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any
later version published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). A
copy of the license is included in *Note GNU GPL::.

* Menu:

* GNU GPL:: GNU General Public License
* GNU LGPL:: GNU Lesser General Public License
* GNU FDL:: GNU Free Documentation License

File: gettext.info, Node: GNU GPL, Next: GNU LGPL, Up: Licenses

C.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
==============================

Version 2, June 1991

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
--------

The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public
License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
software--to make sure the software is free for all its users. This
General Public License applies to most of the Free Software
Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to
using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to
your programs, too.

When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it
if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in
new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.

To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.

For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their
rights.

We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software,
and (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
distribute and/or modify the software.

Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
authors' reputations.

Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software
patents. We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free
program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the
program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any
patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.

The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
modification follow.

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION

0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains a
notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed
under the terms of this General Public License. The "Program",
below, refers to any such program or work, and a "work based on
the Program" means either the Program or any derivative work under
copyright law: that is to say, a work containing the Program or a
portion of it, either verbatim or with modifications and/or
translated into another language. (Hereinafter, translation is
included without limitation in the term "modification".) Each
licensee is addressed as "you".

Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are
not covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act
of running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the
Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on
the Program (independent of having been made by running the
Program). Whether that is true depends on what the Program does.

1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's
source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you
conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate
copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the
notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any
warranty; and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of
this License along with the Program.

You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy,
and you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange
for a fee.

2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion
of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and
distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1
above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:

a. You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices
stating that you changed the files and the date of any change.

b. You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that
in whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program
or any part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge
to all third parties under the terms of this License.

c. If the modified program normally reads commands interactively
when run, you must cause it, when started running for such
interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display
an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and
a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you
provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the
program under these conditions, and telling the user how to
view a copy of this License. (Exception: if the Program
itself is interactive but does not normally print such an
announcement, your work based on the Program is not required
to print an announcement.)

These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If
identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the
Program, and can be reasonably considered independent and separate
works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not
apply to those sections when you distribute them as separate
works. But when you distribute the same sections as part of a
whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution of
the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions
for other licensees extend to the entire whole, and thus to each
and every part regardless of who wrote it.

Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or
contest your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the
intent is to exercise the right to control the distribution of
derivative or collective works based on the Program.

In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the
Program with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on
a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the
other work under the scope of this License.

3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it,
under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms
of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the
following:

a. Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
source code, which must be distributed under the terms of
Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for
software interchange; or,

b. Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your
cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete
machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a
medium customarily used for software interchange; or,

c. Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer
to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is
allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
received the program in object code or executable form with
such an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)

The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete
source code means all the source code for all modules it contains,
plus any associated interface definition files, plus the scripts
used to control compilation and installation of the executable.
However, as a special exception, the source code distributed need
not include anything that is normally distributed (in either
source or binary form) with the major components (compiler,
kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable
runs, unless that component itself accompanies the executable.

If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering
access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent
access to copy the source code from the same place counts as
distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
compelled to copy the source along with the object code.

4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program
except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt
otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is
void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights,
from you under this License will not have their licenses
terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not
signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify
or distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions
are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.
Therefore, by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work
based on the Program), you indicate your acceptance of this
License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying,
distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it.

6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program
subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any
further restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights
granted herein. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance
by third parties to this License.

7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent
issues), conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order,
agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this
License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this
License. If you cannot distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously
your obligations under this License and any other pertinent
obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the
Program at all. For example, if a patent license would not permit
royalty-free redistribution of the Program by all those who
receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only
way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain
entirely from distribution of the Program.

If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable
under any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is
intended to apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply
in other circumstances.

It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of
any such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting
the integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
implemented by public license practices. Many people have made
generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is
willing to distribute software through any other system and a
licensee cannot impose that choice.

This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed
to be a consequence of the rest of this License.

8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces,
the original copyright holder who places the Program under this
License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation
excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only
in or among countries not thus excluded. In such case, this
License incorporates the limitation as if written in the body of
this License.

9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new
versions of the General Public License from time to time. Such
new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.

Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the
Program specifies a version number of this License which applies
to it and "any later version", you have the option of following
the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program
does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose
any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.

10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the
author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted
by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software
Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision
will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of
all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing
and reuse of software generally.

NO WARRANTY

11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO
WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE
LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT
HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT
WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT
NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE
QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE
PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY
SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN
WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY
MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL,
INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR
INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF
DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU
OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY
OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN
ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
-------------------------------------------------------

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
terms.

To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest
to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.

ONE LINE TO GIVE THE PROGRAM'S NAME AND A BRIEF IDEA OF WHAT IT DOES.
Copyright (C) YYYY NAME OF AUTHOR

This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
(at your option) any later version.

This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
GNU General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA.

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper
mail.

If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like
this when it starts in an interactive mode:

Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19YY NAME OF AUTHOR
Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.

The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the
appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the
commands you use may be called something other than `show w' and `show
c'; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your
program.

You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or
your school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program,
if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names:

Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.

SIGNATURE OF TY COON, 1 April 1989
Ty Coon, President of Vice

This General Public License does not permit incorporating your
program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine
library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary
applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the
GNU Library General Public License instead of this License.

File: gettext.info, Node: GNU LGPL, Next: GNU FDL, Prev: GNU GPL, Up: Licenses

C.2 GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
=====================================

Version 2.1, February 1999

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

[This is the first released version of the Lesser GPL. It also counts
as the successor of the GNU Library Public License, version 2, hence the
version number 2.1.]

Preamble
--------

The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public
Licenses are intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change
free software--to make sure the software is free for all its users.

This license, the Lesser General Public License, applies to some
specially designated software--typically libraries--of the Free
Software Foundation and other authors who decide to use it. You can use
it too, but we suggest you first think carefully about whether this
license or the ordinary General Public License is the better strategy to
use in any particular case, based on the explanations below.

When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom of use,
not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that
you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge
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To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
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it. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights.

We protect your rights with a two-step method: (1) we copyright the
library, and (2) we offer you this license, which gives you legal
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To protect each distributor, we want to make it very clear that
there is no warranty for the free library. Also, if the library is
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Finally, software patents pose a constant threat to the existence of
any free program. We wish to make sure that a company cannot
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any patent license obtained for a version of the library must be
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Most GNU software, including some libraries, is covered by the
ordinary GNU General Public License. This license, the GNU Lesser
General Public License, applies to certain designated libraries, and is
quite different from the ordinary General Public License. We use this
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When a program is linked with a library, whether statically or using
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General Public License therefore permits such linking only if the
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Public License permits more lax criteria for linking other code with
the library.

We call this license the "Lesser" General Public License because it
does _Less_ to protect the user's freedom than the ordinary General
Public License. It also provides other free software developers Less
of an advantage over competing non-free programs. These disadvantages
are the reason we use the ordinary General Public License for many
libraries. However, the Lesser license provides advantages in certain
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For example, on rare occasions, there may be a special need to
encourage the widest possible use of a certain library, so that it
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In other cases, permission to use a particular library in non-free
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Although the Lesser General Public License is Less protective of the
users' freedom, it does ensure that the user of a program that is
linked with the Library has the freedom and the wherewithal to run that
program using a modified version of the Library.

The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
modification follow. Pay close attention to the difference between a
"work based on the library" and a "work that uses the library". The
former contains code derived from the library, whereas the latter must
be combined with the library in order to run.

GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION

0. This License Agreement applies to any software library or other
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1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Library's
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royalty-free redistribution of the Library by all those who
receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only
way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain
entirely from distribution of the Library.

If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable
under any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is
intended to apply, and the section as a whole is intended to apply
in other circumstances.

It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of
any such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting
the integrity of the free software distribution system which is
implemented by public license practices. Many people have made
generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is
willing to distribute software through any other system and a
licensee cannot impose that choice.

This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed
to be a consequence of the rest of this License.

12. If the distribution and/or use of the Library is restricted in
certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces,
the original copyright holder who places the Library under this
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13. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new
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NO WARRANTY

15. BECAUSE THE LIBRARY IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO
WARRANTY FOR THE LIBRARY, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE
LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT
HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE LIBRARY "AS IS" WITHOUT
WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT
NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE
QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE LIBRARY IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE
LIBRARY PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY
SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

16. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN
WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY
MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE LIBRARY AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL,
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OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE LIBRARY TO OPERATE WITH ANY
OTHER SOFTWARE), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN
ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

How to Apply These Terms to Your New Libraries
----------------------------------------------

If you develop a new library, and you want it to be of the greatest
possible use to the public, we recommend making it free software that
everyone can redistribute and change. You can do so by permitting
redistribution under these terms (or, alternatively, under the terms of
the ordinary General Public License).

To apply these terms, attach the following notices to the library.
It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most
effectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have
at least the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is
found.

ONE LINE TO GIVE THE LIBRARY'S NAME AND AN IDEA OF WHAT IT DOES.
Copyright (C) YEAR NAME OF AUTHOR

This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (at
your option) any later version.

This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU
Lesser General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public
License along with this library; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301,
USA.

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper
mail.

You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or
your school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the library,
if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names:

Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the library
`Frob' (a library for tweaking knobs) written by James Random Hacker.

SIGNATURE OF TY COON, 1 April 1990
Ty Coon, President of Vice

That's all there is to it!

File: gettext.info, Node: GNU FDL, Prev: GNU LGPL, Up: Licenses

C.3 GNU Free Documentation License
==================================

Version 1.2, November 2002

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

0. PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to
assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or
noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the
author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not
being considered responsible for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.
It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.

We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for
free software, because free software needs free documentation: a
free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms
that the software does. But this License is not limited to
software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless
of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book.
We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is
instruction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium,
that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it
can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice
grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration,
to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The
"Document", below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member
of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You
accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a
way requiring permission under copyright law.

A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
modifications and/or translated into another language.

A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section
of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could
fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document
is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not
explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of
historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or
of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position
regarding them.

The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose
titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in
the notice that says that the Document is released under this
License. If a section does not fit the above definition of
Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.
The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document
does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.

The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are
listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License. A
Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may
be at most 25 words.

A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images
composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some
widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to
text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an
otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of
markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent
modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is
not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A
copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format,
SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and
standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for
human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include
PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that
can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or
XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally
available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF
produced by some word processors for output purposes only.

The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the
material this License requires to appear in the title page. For
works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title
Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the
work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document
whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses
following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ
stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as
"Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".)
To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the
Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according
to this definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice
which states that this License applies to the Document. These
Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in
this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and
has no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License
applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you
add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You
may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading
or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However,
you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you
distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow
the conditions in section 3.

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above,
and you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly
have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and
the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must
enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all
these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and
Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly
and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The
front cover must present the full title with all words of the
title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material
on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the
covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in
other respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto
adjacent pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document
numbering more than 100, you must either include a
machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or
state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from
which the general network-using public has access to download
using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent
copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the
latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you
begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that
this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you
distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or
retailers) of that edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of
the Document well before redistributing any large number of
copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated
version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document
under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you
release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with
the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus
licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to
whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these
things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title
distinct from that of the Document, and from those of
previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed
in the History section of the Document). You may use the
same title as a previous version if the original publisher of
that version gives permission.

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or
entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in
the Modified Version, together with at least five of the
principal authors of the Document (all of its principal
authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you
from this requirement.

C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher.

D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
adjacent to the other copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license
notice giving the public permission to use the Modified
Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in
the Addendum below.

G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant
Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's
license notice.

H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title,
and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new
authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on
the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in
the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors,
and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page,
then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in
the previous sentence.

J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document
for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and
likewise the network locations given in the Document for
previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in
the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a
work that was published at least four years before the
Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version
it refers to gives permission.

K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the
section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor
acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers
or the equivalent are not considered part of the section
titles.

M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section
may not be included in the Modified Version.

N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled
"Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant
Section.

O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no
material copied from the Document, you may at your option
designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this,
add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified
Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any
other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text
has been approved by an organization as the authoritative
definition of a standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text,
and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one
passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be
added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the
Document already includes a cover text for the same cover,
previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity
you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may
replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous
publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this
License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to
assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under
this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for
modified versions, provided that you include in the combination
all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your
combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all
their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
but different contents, make the title of each such section unique
by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the
original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a
unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in
the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the
combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled
"History" in the various original documents, forming one section
Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled
"Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You
must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other
documents released under this License, and replace the individual
copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the
rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the
documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and
distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert
a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow
this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of
that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other
separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of
a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the
copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual
works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this
License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which
are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half
of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed
on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic
form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket
the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section
4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also
include the original English version of this License and the
original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a
disagreement between the translation and the original version of
this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to
Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the
actual title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other
attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is
void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights,
from you under this License will not have their licenses
terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of
the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
`http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/'.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version
number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered
version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you
have the option of following the terms and conditions either of
that specified version or of any later version that has been
published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If
the Document does not specify a version number of this License,
you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
----------------------------------------------------

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and license
notices just after the title page:

Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License''.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover
Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this:

with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with
the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being LIST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to
permit their use in free software.

File: gettext.info, Node: Program Index, Next: Option Index, Prev: Licenses, Up: Top

Program Index
*************

[index]
* Menu:

* autopoint: autopoint Invocation. (line 6)
* envsubst: envsubst Invocation. (line 6)
* gettext <1>: gettext Invocation. (line 6)
* gettext: sh. (line 19)
* gettextize: gettextize Invocation.
(line 34)
* msgattrib: msgattrib Invocation. (line 6)
* msgcat: msgcat Invocation. (line 6)
* msgcmp: msgcmp Invocation. (line 6)
* msgcomm: msgcomm Invocation. (line 6)
* msgconv: msgconv Invocation. (line 6)
* msgen: msgen Invocation. (line 6)
* msgexec: msgexec Invocation. (line 6)
* msgfilter: msgfilter Invocation. (line 6)
* msgfmt: msgfmt Invocation. (line 6)
* msggrep: msggrep Invocation. (line 6)
* msginit: msginit Invocation. (line 6)
* msgmerge: msgmerge Invocation. (line 6)
* msgunfmt: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 6)
* msguniq: msguniq Invocation. (line 6)
* ngettext <1>: sh. (line 19)
* ngettext: ngettext Invocation. (line 6)
* recode-sr-latin: msgfilter Invocation. (line 85)
* xgettext: xgettext Invocation. (line 6)

File: gettext.info, Node: Option Index, Next: Variable Index, Prev: Program Index, Up: Top

Option Index
************

[index]
* Menu:

* --add-comments, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 97)
* --add-location, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 127)
* --add-location, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 114)
* --add-location, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 95)
* --add-location, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 74)
* --add-location, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 70)
* --add-location, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 128)
* --add-location, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 152)
* --add-location, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 139)
* --add-location, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 92)
* --add-location, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 286)
* --alignment, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 209)
* --backup, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 65)
* --boost, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 252)
* --c++, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 64)
* --check, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 146)
* --check-accelerators, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 187)
* --check-compatibility, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 183)
* --check-domain, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 178)
* --check-format, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 150)
* --check-header, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 173)
* --clear-fuzzy, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 71)
* --clear-obsolete, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 77)
* --clear-previous, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 80)
* --color, msgcat option <1>: msgcat Invocation. (line 95)
* --color, msgcat option: The --color option. (line 6)
* --comment, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 93)
* --compendium, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 36)
* --copyright-holder, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 336)
* --csharp, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 36)
* --csharp, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 19)
* --csharp-resources, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 40)
* --csharp-resources, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 23)
* --debug, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 256)
* --default-domain, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 36)
* --directory, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 19)
* --directory, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 32)
* --directory, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 27)
* --directory, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 30)
* --directory, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 19)
* --directory, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 25)
* --directory, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 44)
* --directory, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 20)
* --directory, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 18)
* --directory, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 19)
* --directory, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 30)
* --directory, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 26)
* --directory, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 24)
* --domain, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 16)
* --domain, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 77)
* --domain, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 15)
* --dry-run, autopoint option: autopoint Invocation.
(line 24)
* --dry-run, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 72)
* --exclude-file, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 92)
* --expression, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 70)
* --extended-regexp, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 101)
* --extract-all, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 106)
* --extracted-comment, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 97)
* --file, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 74)
* --file, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 113)
* --files-from, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 27)
* --files-from, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 25)
* --files-from, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 19)
* --fixed-strings, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 105)
* --flag, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 199)
* --force, autopoint option: autopoint Invocation.
(line 20)
* --force, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 40)
* --force-po, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 116)
* --force-po, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 103)
* --force-po, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 84)
* --force-po, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 64)
* --force-po, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 60)
* --force-po, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 114)
* --force-po, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 143)
* --force-po, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 129)
* --force-po, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 108)
* --force-po, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 81)
* --force-po, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 273)
* --foreign-user, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 351)
* --from-code, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 74)
* --fuzzy, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 91)
* --help, autopoint option: autopoint Invocation.
(line 33)
* --help, envsubst option: envsubst Invocation. (line 22)
* --help, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 32)
* --help, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 77)
* --help, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 172)
* --help, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 159)
* --help, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 67)
* --help, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 143)
* --help, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 119)
* --help, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 115)
* --help, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 69)
* --help, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 173)
* --help, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 222)
* --help, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 195)
* --help, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 90)
* --help, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 184)
* --help, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 153)
* --help, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 137)
* --help, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 31)
* --help, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 404)
* --ignore-case, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 117)
* --ignore-file, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 87)
* --indent, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 120)
* --indent, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 107)
* --indent, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 88)
* --indent, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 68)
* --indent, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 64)
* --indent, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 117)
* --indent, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 146)
* --indent, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 133)
* --indent, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 112)
* --indent, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 85)
* --indent, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 277)
* --input, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 40)
* --input, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 16)
* --input, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 16)
* --intl, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 43)
* --invert-match, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 121)
* --java, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 30)
* --java, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 16)
* --java2, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 33)
* --join-existing, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 88)
* --kde, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 248)
* --keep-header, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 120)
* --keyword, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 114)
* --language, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 56)
* --less-than, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 55)
* --less-than, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 53)
* --locale, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 100)
* --locale, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 52)
* --locale, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 65)
* --location, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 72)
* --more-than, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 60)
* --more-than, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 58)
* --msgctxt, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 81)
* --msgid, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 85)
* --msgid-bugs-address, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 364)
* --msgstr, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 89)
* --msgstr-prefix, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 392)
* --msgstr-suffix, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 396)
* --multi-domain, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 36)
* --multi-domain, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 101)
* --no-changelog, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 58)
* --no-fuzzy, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 47)
* --no-fuzzy-matching, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 105)
* --no-hash, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 212)
* --no-location, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 123)
* --no-location, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 110)
* --no-location, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 91)
* --no-location, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 71)
* --no-location, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 67)
* --no-location, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 125)
* --no-location, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 149)
* --no-location, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 136)
* --no-location, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 88)
* --no-location, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 280)
* --no-obsolete, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 53)
* --no-translator, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 58)
* --no-wrap, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 152)
* --no-wrap, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 139)
* --no-wrap, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 120)
* --no-wrap, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 99)
* --no-wrap, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 95)
* --no-wrap, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 153)
* --no-wrap, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 177)
* --no-wrap, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 79)
* --no-wrap, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 164)
* --no-wrap, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 137)
* --no-wrap, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 117)
* --no-wrap, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 310)
* --obsolete, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 95)
* --omit-header, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 135)
* --omit-header, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 325)
* --only-file, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 83)
* --only-fuzzy, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 50)
* --only-obsolete, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 56)
* --output, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 40)
* --output-dir, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 45)
* --output-file, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 31)
* --output-file, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 44)
* --output-file, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 42)
* --output-file, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 31)
* --output-file, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 37)
* --output-file, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 32)
* --output-file, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 54)
* --output-file, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 31)
* --output-file, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 27)
* --output-file, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 53)
* --output-file, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 98)
* --output-file, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 38)
* --package-name, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 357)
* --package-version, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 360)
* --po-dir, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 51)
* --previous, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 109)
* --properties-input, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 104)
* --properties-input, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 74)
* --properties-input, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 54)
* --properties-input, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 72)
* --properties-input, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 52)
* --properties-input, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 48)
* --properties-input, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 56)
* --properties-input, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 102)
* --properties-input, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 133)
* --properties-input, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 131)
* --properties-input, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 39)
* --properties-input, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 117)
* --properties-input, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 61)
* --properties-output, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 136)
* --properties-output, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 123)
* --properties-output, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 104)
* --properties-output, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 83)
* --properties-output, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 79)
* --properties-output, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 137)
* --properties-output, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 161)
* --properties-output, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 63)
* --properties-output, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 148)
* --properties-output, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 121)
* --properties-output, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 101)
* --properties-output, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 294)
* --qt, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 46)
* --qt, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 244)
* --quiet, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 79)
* --quiet, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 197)
* --regexp=, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 109)
* --repeated, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 49)
* --resource, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 75)
* --resource, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 61)
* --set-fuzzy, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 68)
* --set-obsolete, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 74)
* --silent, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 79)
* --silent, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 197)
* --sort-by-file, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 164)
* --sort-by-file, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 151)
* --sort-by-file, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 132)
* --sort-by-file, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 111)
* --sort-by-file, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 107)
* --sort-by-file, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 165)
* --sort-by-file, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 187)
* --sort-by-file, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 176)
* --sort-by-file, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 129)
* --sort-by-file, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 322)
* --sort-output, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 159)
* --sort-output, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 146)
* --sort-output, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 127)
* --sort-output, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 106)
* --sort-output, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 102)
* --sort-output, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 160)
* --sort-output, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 183)
* --sort-output, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 171)
* --sort-output, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 144)
* --sort-output, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 124)
* --sort-output, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 317)
* --statistics, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 229)
* --strict, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 130)
* --strict, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 117)
* --strict, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 98)
* --strict, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 77)
* --strict, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 73)
* --strict, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 131)
* --strict, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 57)
* --strict, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 155)
* --strict, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 142)
* --strict, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 115)
* --strict, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 95)
* --strict, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 289)
* --stringtable-input, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 108)
* --stringtable-input, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 78)
* --stringtable-input, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 58)
* --stringtable-input, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 76)
* --stringtable-input, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 52)
* --stringtable-input, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 60)
* --stringtable-input, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 106)
* --stringtable-input, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 137)
* --stringtable-input, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 135)
* --stringtable-input, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 43)
* --stringtable-input, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 121)
* --stringtable-input, msgonv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 56)
* --stringtable-input, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 65)
* --stringtable-output, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 141)
* --stringtable-output, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 128)
* --stringtable-output, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 109)
* --stringtable-output, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 88)
* --stringtable-output, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 84)
* --stringtable-output, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 142)
* --stringtable-output, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 166)
* --stringtable-output, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 68)
* --stringtable-output, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 153)
* --stringtable-output, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 126)
* --stringtable-output, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 106)
* --stringtable-output, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 299)
* --style, msgcat option <1>: msgcat Invocation. (line 99)
* --style, msgcat option: The --style option. (line 6)
* --suffix, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 68)
* --symlink, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 63)
* --tcl, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 43)
* --tcl, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 26)
* --to-code, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 87)
* --to-code, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 42)
* --to-code, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 74)
* --translated, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 41)
* --trigraphs, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 239)
* --unique, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 65)
* --unique, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 63)
* --unique, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 53)
* --untranslated, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 44)
* --update, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 45)
* --use-first, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 90)
* --use-first, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 77)
* --use-fuzzy, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 39)
* --use-fuzzy, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 199)
* --use-untranslated, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 45)
* --variables, envsubst option: envsubst Invocation. (line 15)
* --verbose, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 233)
* --verbose, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 192)
* --verbose, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 161)
* --version, autopoint option: autopoint Invocation.
(line 36)
* --version, envsubst option: envsubst Invocation. (line 26)
* --version, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 40)
* --version, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 80)
* --version, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 176)
* --version, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 163)
* --version, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 71)
* --version, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 147)
* --version, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 123)
* --version, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 119)
* --version, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 73)
* --version, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 177)
* --version, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 226)
* --version, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 199)
* --version, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 94)
* --version, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 188)
* --version, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 157)
* --version, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 141)
* --version, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 35)
* --version, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 408)
* --width, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 146)
* --width, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 133)
* --width, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 114)
* --width, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 93)
* --width, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 89)
* --width, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 147)
* --width, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 171)
* --width, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 73)
* --width, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 158)
* --width, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 131)
* --width, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 111)
* --width, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 304)
* -<, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 55)
* -<, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 53)
* ->, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 60)
* ->, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 58)
* -a, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 209)
* -a, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 106)
* -c, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 146)
* -C, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 183)
* -C, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 93)
* -C, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 36)
* -C, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 64)
* -c, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 97)
* -d, autopoint option: autopoint Invocation.
(line 24)
* -d, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 16)
* -d, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 72)
* -D, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 19)
* -D, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 32)
* -D, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 27)
* -D, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 30)
* -D, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 19)
* -D, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 25)
* -D, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 44)
* -D, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 20)
* -d, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 105)
* -D, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 18)
* -d, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 84)
* -D, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 19)
* -D, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 30)
* -d, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 70)
* -D, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 26)
* -d, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 49)
* -d, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 15)
* -D, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 24)
* -d, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 36)
* -e, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 20)
* -E, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 27)
* -e, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 70)
* -E, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 101)
* -e, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 109)
* -e, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 19)
* -E, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 26)
* -f, autopoint option: autopoint Invocation.
(line 20)
* -f, gettextize option: gettextize Invocation.
(line 40)
* -F, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 164)
* -F, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 151)
* -f, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 27)
* -f, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 25)
* -F, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 132)
* -F, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 111)
* -F, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 107)
* -F, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 165)
* -f, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 74)
* -f, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 199)
* -f, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 113)
* -F, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 105)
* -F, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 176)
* -F, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 129)
* -f, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 19)
* -F, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 322)
* -h, envsubst option: envsubst Invocation. (line 22)
* -h, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 32)
* -h, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 172)
* -h, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 159)
* -h, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 67)
* -h, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 143)
* -h, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 119)
* -h, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 115)
* -h, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 69)
* -h, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 173)
* -h, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 222)
* -h, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 195)
* -h, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 90)
* -h, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 184)
* -h, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 153)
* -h, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 137)
* -h, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 31)
* -h, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 404)
* -i, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 120)
* -i, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 107)
* -i, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 88)
* -i, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 68)
* -i, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 64)
* -i, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 40)
* -i, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 16)
* -i, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 117)
* -i, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 16)
* -i, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 133)
* -i, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 112)
* -i, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 85)
* -i, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 277)
* -j, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 30)
* -J, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 81)
* -j, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 16)
* -j, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 88)
* -K, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 85)
* -k, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 114)
* -l, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 117)
* -l, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 52)
* -l, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 82)
* -L, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 56)
* -m, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 36)
* -M, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 77)
* -m, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 101)
* -M, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 396)
* -m, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 392)
* -n, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 35)
* -n, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 127)
* -n, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 114)
* -n, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 95)
* -n, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 79)
* -N, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 72)
* -N, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 105)
* -n, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 92)
* -n, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 286)
* -o, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 31)
* -o, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 44)
* -o, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 42)
* -o, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 31)
* -o, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 37)
* -o, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 32)
* -o, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 54)
* -o, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 31)
* -o, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 27)
* -o, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 53)
* -o, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 98)
* -o, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 38)
* -o, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 40)
* -P, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 104)
* -p, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 136)
* -P, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 74)
* -p, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 123)
* -P, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 54)
* -P, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 72)
* -p, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 104)
* -P, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 52)
* -p, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 83)
* -p, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 79)
* -P, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 48)
* -P, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 56)
* -P, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 102)
* -p, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 137)
* -P, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 133)
* -P, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 131)
* -p, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 161)
* -p, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 63)
* -P, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 39)
* -P, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 117)
* -p, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 148)
* -p, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 121)
* -p, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 101)
* -P, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 61)
* -p, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 45)
* -q, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 197)
* -r, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 75)
* -r, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 61)
* -s, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 159)
* -s, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 146)
* -s, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 127)
* -s, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 106)
* -s, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 102)
* -s, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 160)
* -s, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 171)
* -s, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 144)
* -s, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 124)
* -s, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 317)
* -t, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 87)
* -t, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 42)
* -T, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 89)
* -t, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 74)
* -T, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 239)
* -u, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 65)
* -u, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 63)
* -U, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 45)
* -u, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 53)
* -V, envsubst option: envsubst Invocation. (line 26)
* -v, envsubst option: envsubst Invocation. (line 15)
* -V, gettext option: gettext Invocation. (line 40)
* -V, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 176)
* -V, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 163)
* -V, msgcmp option: msgcmp Invocation. (line 71)
* -V, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 147)
* -V, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 123)
* -V, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 119)
* -V, msgexec option: msgexec Invocation. (line 73)
* -V, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 177)
* -V, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 226)
* -v, msgfmt option: msgfmt Invocation. (line 233)
* -V, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 199)
* -v, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 121)
* -V, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 94)
* -v, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 192)
* -V, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 188)
* -V, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 157)
* -v, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 161)
* -V, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 141)
* -V, ngettext option: ngettext Invocation. (line 35)
* -V, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 408)
* -w, msgattrib option: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 146)
* -w, msgcat option: msgcat Invocation. (line 133)
* -w, msgcomm option: msgcomm Invocation. (line 114)
* -w, msgconv option: msgconv Invocation. (line 93)
* -w, msgen option: msgen Invocation. (line 89)
* -w, msgfilter option: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 147)
* -w, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 171)
* -w, msginit option: msginit Invocation. (line 73)
* -w, msgmerge option: msgmerge Invocation. (line 158)
* -w, msgunfmt option: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 131)
* -w, msguniq option: msguniq Invocation. (line 111)
* -w, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 304)
* -X, msggrep option: msggrep Invocation. (line 97)
* -x, xgettext option: xgettext Invocation. (line 92)

File: gettext.info, Node: Variable Index, Next: PO Mode Index, Prev: Option Index, Up: Top

Variable Index
**************

[index]
* Menu:

* GETTEXT_LOG_UNTRANSLATED, environment variable: Prioritizing messages.
(line 23)
* LANG, environment variable <1>: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 17)
* LANG, environment variable: gettext grok. (line 32)
* LANGUAGE, environment variable <1>: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 11)
* LANGUAGE, environment variable <2>: po/Rules-*. (line 11)
* LANGUAGE, environment variable: gettext grok. (line 28)
* LC_ALL, environment variable <1>: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 11)
* LC_ALL, environment variable: gettext grok. (line 28)
* LC_COLLATE, environment variable <1>: gettext grok. (line 30)
* LC_COLLATE, environment variable: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 13)
* LC_CTYPE, environment variable <1>: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 13)
* LC_CTYPE, environment variable: gettext grok. (line 30)
* LC_MESSAGES, environment variable <1>: gettext grok. (line 30)
* LC_MESSAGES, environment variable: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 13)
* LC_MONETARY, environment variable <1>: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 13)
* LC_MONETARY, environment variable: gettext grok. (line 30)
* LC_NUMERIC, environment variable <1>: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 13)
* LC_NUMERIC, environment variable: gettext grok. (line 30)
* LC_TIME, environment variable <1>: gettext grok. (line 30)
* LC_TIME, environment variable: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 13)
* LINGUAS, environment variable: Installers. (line 17)
* MSGEXEC_LOCATION, environment variable: msgexec Invocation. (line 18)
* MSGEXEC_MSGCTXT, environment variable: msgexec Invocation. (line 18)
* MSGEXEC_MSGID, environment variable: msgexec Invocation. (line 18)
* PO_STYLE, environment variable: The --style option. (line 10)
* TERM, environment variable: The TERM variable. (line 6)
* TEXTDOMAIN, environment variable: sh. (line 23)
* TEXTDOMAINDIR, environment variable: sh. (line 26)

File: gettext.info, Node: PO Mode Index, Next: Autoconf Macro Index, Prev: Variable Index, Up: Top

PO Mode Index
*************

[index]
* Menu:

* #, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 46)
* ,, PO Mode command: Marking. (line 44)
* ., PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 46)
* .emacs customizations: Installation. (line 13)
* 0, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 40)
* <, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 74)
* =, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 87)
* >, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 32)
* ?, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 44)
* _, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 53)
* A, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 36)
* a, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 40)
* A, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 28)
* auxiliary PO file: Auxiliary. (line 13)
* C-c C-a, PO Mode command <1>: Subedit. (line 35)
* C-c C-a, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 25)
* C-c C-c, PO Mode command: Subedit. (line 11)
* C-c C-k, PO Mode command: Subedit. (line 27)
* C-j, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 26)
* commands: Main PO Commands. (line 6)
* comment out PO file entry: Obsolete Entries. (line 47)
* consulting program sources: C Sources Context. (line 6)
* consulting translations to other languages: Auxiliary. (line 6)
* current entry of a PO file: Entry Positioning. (line 6)
* cut and paste for translated strings: Modifying Translations.
(line 74)
* DEL, PO Mode command <1>: Obsolete Entries. (line 32)
* DEL, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 60)
* editing comments: Modifying Comments. (line 6)
* editing multiple entries: Subedit. (line 62)
* editing translations: Modifying Translations.
(line 6)
* etags, using for marking strings: Marking. (line 17)
* exiting PO subedit: Subedit. (line 20)
* find source fragment for a PO file entry: C Sources Context.
(line 33)
* h, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 44)
* installing PO mode: Installation. (line 13)
* k, PO Mode command <1>: Modifying Translations.
(line 74)
* k, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 40)
* K, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 60)
* k, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 32)
* K, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 27)
* k, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 30)
* LFD, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 52)
* looking at the source to aid translation: C Sources Context.
(line 6)
* m, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 35)
* M-,, PO Mode command: Marking. (line 48)
* M-., PO Mode command: Marking. (line 51)
* M-A, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 32)
* M-s, PO Mode command: C Sources Context. (line 41)
* M-S, PO Mode command: C Sources Context. (line 89)
* marking strings for translation: Marking. (line 6)
* moving by fuzzy entries: Fuzzy Entries. (line 24)
* moving by obsolete entries: Obsolete Entries. (line 22)
* moving by translated entries: Translated Entries. (line 12)
* moving by untranslated entries: Untranslated Entries.
(line 18)
* moving through a PO file: Entry Positioning. (line 14)
* n, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 69)
* next-error, stepping through PO file validation results: Main PO Commands.
(line 99)
* normalize, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 64)
* O, PO Mode command: Obsolete Entries. (line 29)
* o, PO Mode command: Obsolete Entries. (line 26)
* O, PO Mode command: Obsolete Entries. (line 36)
* o, PO Mode command: Obsolete Entries. (line 36)
* obsolete active entry: Obsolete Entries. (line 47)
* p, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 69)
* pending subedits: Subedit. (line 73)
* po-auto-edit-with-msgid, PO Mode variable: Modifying Translations.
(line 57)
* po-auto-fuzzy-on-edit, PO Mode variable: Translated Entries.
(line 28)
* po-auto-select-on-unfuzzy, PO Mode variable: Fuzzy Entries. (line 44)
* po-confirm-and-quit, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 62)
* po-consider-as-auxiliary, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 36)
* po-consider-source-path, PO Mode command: C Sources Context.
(line 89)
* po-current-entry, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 46)
* po-cycle-auxiliary, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 40)
* po-cycle-source-reference, PO Mode command: C Sources Context.
(line 53)
* po-edit-comment, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 46)
* po-edit-msgstr, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 42)
* po-exchange-location, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 106)
* po-fade-out-entry, PO Mode command <1>: Obsolete Entries. (line 47)
* po-fade-out-entry, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 60)
* po-first-entry, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 74)
* po-help, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 83)
* po-ignore-as-auxiliary, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 36)
* po-ignore-source-path, PO Mode command: C Sources Context. (line 89)
* po-kill-comment, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 60)
* po-kill-msgstr, PO Mode command <1>: Modifying Translations.
(line 74)
* po-kill-msgstr, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 40)
* po-kill-ring-save-comment, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments.
(line 60)
* po-kill-ring-save-msgstr, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 74)
* po-last-entry, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 74)
* po-mark-translatable, PO Mode command: Marking. (line 98)
* po-msgid-to-msgstr, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 52)
* po-next-entry, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 69)
* po-next-fuzzy-entry, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 39)
* po-next-obsolete-entry, PO Mode command: Obsolete Entries. (line 36)
* po-next-translated-entry, PO Mode command: Translated Entries.
(line 23)
* po-next-untranslated-entry, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 35)
* po-normalize, PO Mode command: Normalizing. (line 31)
* po-other-window, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 72)
* po-pop-location, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 92)
* po-previous-entry, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 69)
* po-previous-fuzzy-entry, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 39)
* po-previous-obsolete-entry, PO Mode command: Obsolete Entries.
(line 36)
* po-previous-translated-entry, PO Mode command: Translated Entries.
(line 23)
* po-previous-untransted-entry, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 35)
* po-push-location, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 92)
* po-quit, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 62)
* po-select-auxiliary, PO Mode command: Auxiliary. (line 49)
* po-select-mark-and-mark, PO Mode command: Marking. (line 98)
* po-select-source-reference, PO Mode command: C Sources Context.
(line 53)
* po-statistics, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 87)
* po-subedit-abort, PO Mode command: Subedit. (line 27)
* po-subedit-cycle-auxiliary, PO Mode command: Subedit. (line 35)
* po-subedit-exit, PO Mode command: Subedit. (line 20)
* po-subedit-mode-hook, PO Mode variable: Modifying Comments. (line 57)
* po-tags-search, PO Mode command: Marking. (line 56)
* po-undo, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 53)
* po-unfuzzy, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 44)
* po-validate, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 92)
* po-yank-comment, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 60)
* po-yank-msgstr, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 98)
* q, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 62)
* Q, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 33)
* r, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 39)
* RET, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 42)
* s, PO Mode command: C Sources Context. (line 53)
* S, PO Mode command: C Sources Context. (line 89)
* starting a string translation: Modifying Translations.
(line 63)
* string normalization in entries: Normalizing. (line 30)
* subedit minor mode: Subedit. (line 6)
* T, PO Mode command: Translated Entries. (line 23)
* t, PO Mode command: Translated Entries. (line 16)
* T, PO Mode command: Translated Entries. (line 19)
* t, PO Mode command: Translated Entries. (line 23)
* TAB, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 44)
* TAGS, and marking translatable strings: Marking. (line 31)
* U, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 35)
* u, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 25)
* U, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 28)
* u, PO Mode command: Untranslated Entries.
(line 35)
* use the source, Luke: C Sources Context. (line 6)
* using obsolete translations to make new entries: Modifying Translations.
(line 124)
* using translation compendia: Compendium. (line 6)
* V, PO Mode command: Main PO Commands. (line 50)
* w, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 74)
* W, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 31)
* w, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 34)
* W, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 60)
* x, PO Mode command: Entry Positioning. (line 42)
* Y, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 60)
* y, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 38)
* Y, PO Mode command: Modifying Comments. (line 35)
* y, PO Mode command: Modifying Translations.
(line 98)
* Z, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 39)
* z, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 39)
* Z, PO Mode command: Fuzzy Entries. (line 33)

File: gettext.info, Node: Autoconf Macro Index, Next: Index, Prev: PO Mode Index, Up: Top

Autoconf Macro Index
********************

[index]
* Menu:

* AM_GNU_GETTEXT: AM_GNU_GETTEXT. (line 6)
* AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR.
(line 6)
* AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED. (line 6)
* AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION.
(line 6)
* AM_ICONV: AM_ICONV. (line 6)
* AM_PO_SUBDIRS: AM_PO_SUBDIRS. (line 6)
* AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION: AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION. (line 6)

File: gettext.info, Node: Index, Prev: Autoconf Macro Index, Up: Top

General Index
*************

[index]
* Menu:

* _, a macro to mark strings for translation: Mark Keywords. (line 45)
* _nl_msg_cat_cntr: gettext grok. (line 62)
* ABOUT-NLS file: Installing Localizations.
(line 13)
* acconfig.h file: acconfig. (line 6)
* accumulating translations: Creating Compendia. (line 14)
* aclocal.m4 file: aclocal. (line 6)
* adding keywords, xgettext: xgettext Invocation. (line 117)
* ambiguities: Preparing Strings. (line 41)
* apply a filter to translations: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 8)
* apply command to all translations in a catalog: msgexec Invocation.
(line 8)
* Arabic digits: c-format. (line 28)
* attribute manipulation: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 8)
* attribute, fuzzy: Fuzzy Entries. (line 6)
* attributes of a PO file entry: Fuzzy Entries. (line 6)
* attributes, manipulating: Manipulating. (line 56)
* autoconf macros for gettext: autoconf macros. (line 6)
* autopoint program, usage: autopoint Invocation.
(line 6)
* auxiliary PO file: Auxiliary. (line 13)
* available translations: Installing Localizations.
(line 6)
* awk: gawk. (line 6)
* awk-format flag: PO Files. (line 149)
* backup old file, and msgmerge program: msgmerge Invocation. (line 65)
* bash: bash. (line 6)
* bibliography: References. (line 6)
* big picture: Overview. (line 6)
* bind_textdomain_codeset: Charset conversion. (line 28)
* Boost format strings: xgettext Invocation. (line 252)
* boost-format flag: PO Files. (line 189)
* bug report address: Introduction. (line 24)
* C and C-like languages: C. (line 6)
* C trigraphs: xgettext Invocation. (line 239)
* C#: C#. (line 6)
* C# mode, and msgfmt program: msgfmt Invocation. (line 36)
* C# mode, and msgunfmt program: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 19)
* C# resources mode, and msgfmt program: msgfmt Invocation. (line 40)
* C# resources mode, and msgunfmt program: msgunfmt Invocation.
(line 23)
* C#, string concatenation: Preparing Strings. (line 168)
* c-format flag: PO Files. (line 90)
* c-format, and xgettext: c-format Flag. (line 48)
* catalog encoding and msgexec output: msgexec Invocation. (line 25)
* catclose, a catgets function: Interface to catgets.
(line 44)
* catgets, a catgets function: Interface to catgets.
(line 25)
* catgets, X/Open specification: catgets. (line 6)
* catopen, a catgets function: Interface to catgets.
(line 13)
* character encoding: Aspects. (line 67)
* charset conversion at runtime: Charset conversion. (line 6)
* charset of PO files: Header Entry. (line 65)
* check format strings: msgfmt Invocation. (line 150)
* checking of translations: Manipulating. (line 41)
* clisp: Common Lisp. (line 6)
* clisp C sources: clisp C. (line 6)
* codeset: Aspects. (line 67)
* comments in PO files: PO Files. (line 288)
* comments, automatic: PO Files. (line 36)
* comments, extracted: PO Files. (line 36)
* comments, translator: PO Files. (line 36)
* Common Lisp: Common Lisp. (line 6)
* compare PO files: msgcmp Invocation. (line 8)
* comparison of interfaces: Comparison. (line 6)
* compatibility with X/Open msgfmt: msgfmt Invocation. (line 183)
* compendium: Compendium. (line 6)
* compendium, creating: Creating Compendia. (line 6)
* concatenate PO files: msgcat Invocation. (line 8)
* concatenating PO files into a compendium: Creating Compendia.
(line 14)
* concatenation of strings: Preparing Strings. (line 117)
* config.h.in file: config.h.in. (line 6)
* context: Contexts. (line 6)
* context, argument specification in xgettext: xgettext Invocation.
(line 117)
* context, in MO files: MO Files. (line 63)
* context, in PO files: PO Files. (line 193)
* control characters: Preparing Strings. (line 190)
* convert binary message catalog into PO file: msgunfmt Invocation.
(line 8)
* convert translations to a different encoding: msgconv Invocation.
(line 8)
* converting a package to use gettext: Prerequisites. (line 6)
* country codes: Country Codes. (line 6)
* create new PO file: msginit Invocation. (line 8)
* creating a new PO file: Creating. (line 6)
* creating compendia: Creating Compendia. (line 6)
* csharp-format flag: PO Files. (line 145)
* currency symbols: Aspects. (line 79)
* date format: Aspects. (line 84)
* dcngettext: Plural forms. (line 128)
* dcpgettext: Contexts. (line 56)
* dcpgettext_expr: Contexts. (line 112)
* debugging messages marked as format strings: xgettext Invocation.
(line 256)
* dialect: Manipulating. (line 28)
* disabling NLS: lib/gettext.h. (line 6)
* distribution tarball: Release Management. (line 6)
* dngettext: Plural forms. (line 120)
* dollar substitution: envsubst Invocation. (line 8)
* domain ambiguities: Ambiguities. (line 6)
* dpgettext: Contexts. (line 56)
* dpgettext_expr: Contexts. (line 112)
* duplicate elimination: Manipulating. (line 45)
* duplicate removal: msguniq Invocation. (line 8)
* editing comments in PO files: Modifying Comments. (line 6)
* Editing PO Files: Editing. (line 6)
* editing translations: Modifying Translations.
(line 6)
* elisp-format flag: PO Files. (line 125)
* Emacs Lisp: Emacs Lisp. (line 6)
* Emacs PO Mode: PO Mode. (line 6)
* encoding: Aspects. (line 67)
* encoding conversion: Manipulating. (line 17)
* encoding conversion at runtime: Charset conversion. (line 6)
* encoding for your language: Header Entry. (line 94)
* encoding list: Header Entry. (line 78)
* encoding of PO files: Header Entry. (line 65)
* environment variables: envsubst Invocation. (line 8)
* envsubst program, usage: envsubst Invocation. (line 6)
* eval_gettext function, usage: eval_gettext Invocation.
(line 6)
* eval_ngettext function, usage: eval_ngettext Invocation.
(line 6)
* evolution of packages: Overview. (line 127)
* extracting parts of a PO file into a compendium: Creating Compendia.
(line 65)
* FDL, GNU Free Documentation License: GNU FDL. (line 6)
* file format, .mo: MO Files. (line 6)
* file format, .po: PO Files. (line 6)
* files, .po and .mo: Files. (line 6)
* files, .pot: Overview. (line 67)
* filter messages according to attributes: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 8)
* find common messages: msgcomm Invocation. (line 8)
* force use of fuzzy entries: msgfmt Invocation. (line 199)
* format strings: c-format Flag. (line 6)
* Free Pascal: Pascal. (line 6)
* function attribute, __format__: xgettext Invocation. (line 203)
* function attribute, __format_arg__: xgettext Invocation. (line 217)
* fuzzy entries: Fuzzy Entries. (line 6)
* fuzzy flag: PO Files. (line 80)
* gawk: gawk. (line 6)
* gcc-internal-format flag: PO Files. (line 177)
* GCC-source: GCC-source. (line 6)
* generate binary message catalog from PO file: msgfmt Invocation.
(line 8)
* generate translation catalog in English: msgen Invocation. (line 8)
* gettext files: Adjusting Files. (line 6)
* gettext installation: Installation. (line 6)
* gettext interface: Interface to gettext.
(line 6)
* gettext program, usage: gettext Invocation. (line 6)
* gettext vs catgets: Comparison. (line 6)
* gettext, a programmer's view: gettext. (line 6)
* gettext.h file: lib/gettext.h. (line 6)
* gettextize program, usage: gettextize Invocation.
(line 34)
* GNOME PO file editor: Gtranslator. (line 6)
* GPL, GNU General Public License: GNU GPL. (line 6)
* GUI programs: Contexts. (line 6)
* guile: Scheme. (line 6)
* hash table, inside MO files: MO Files. (line 47)
* he, she, and they: Introduction. (line 15)
* header entry of a PO file: Header Entry. (line 6)
* help option: Preparing Strings. (line 109)
* history of GNU gettext: History. (line 6)
* i18n: Concepts. (line 6)
* importing PO files: Normalizing. (line 55)
* include file libintl.h <1>: Comparison. (line 33)
* include file libintl.h <2>: Overview. (line 57)
* include file libintl.h <3>: lib/gettext.h. (line 29)
* include file libintl.h: Importing. (line 11)
* initialization: Triggering. (line 6)
* initialize new PO file: msginit Invocation. (line 8)
* initialize translations from a compendium: Using Compendia. (line 12)
* installing gettext: Installation. (line 6)
* interface to catgets: Interface to catgets.
(line 6)
* internationalization: Concepts. (line 16)
* inttypes.h: Preparing Strings. (line 133)
* ISO 3166: Country Codes. (line 6)
* ISO 639: Language Codes. (line 6)
* Java: Java. (line 6)
* Java mode, and msgfmt program: msgfmt Invocation. (line 30)
* Java mode, and msgunfmt program: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 16)
* Java, string concatenation: Preparing Strings. (line 168)
* java-format flag: PO Files. (line 141)
* KDE format strings: xgettext Invocation. (line 248)
* KDE PO file editor: KBabel. (line 6)
* kde-format flag: PO Files. (line 185)
* keyboard accelerator checking: msgfmt Invocation. (line 187)
* l10n: Concepts. (line 6)
* language codes: Language Codes. (line 6)
* language selection: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 6)
* language selection at runtime: gettext grok. (line 14)
* large package: Ambiguities. (line 6)
* LGPL, GNU Lesser General Public License: GNU LGPL. (line 6)
* libiconv library: AM_ICONV. (line 21)
* libintl for C#: C#. (line 178)
* libintl for Java: Java. (line 105)
* libintl library: AM_GNU_GETTEXT. (line 53)
* librep Lisp: librep. (line 6)
* librep-format flag: PO Files. (line 129)
* License, GNU FDL: GNU FDL. (line 6)
* License, GNU GPL: GNU GPL. (line 6)
* License, GNU LGPL: GNU LGPL. (line 6)
* Licenses: Licenses. (line 6)
* LINGUAS file: po/LINGUAS. (line 6)
* link with libintl: Overview. (line 62)
* Linux <1>: Overview. (line 62)
* Linux <2>: Aspects. (line 125)
* Linux: Header Entry. (line 91)
* Lisp: Common Lisp. (line 6)
* lisp-format flag: PO Files. (line 121)
* list of translation teams, where to find: Header Entry. (line 59)
* locale categories: Aspects. (line 114)
* locale category, LC_ALL: Triggering. (line 23)
* locale category, LC_COLLATE: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale category, LC_CTYPE <1>: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale category, LC_CTYPE <2>: Aspects. (line 67)
* locale category, LC_CTYPE: Triggering. (line 23)
* locale category, LC_MESSAGES <1>: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale category, LC_MESSAGES: Aspects. (line 108)
* locale category, LC_MONETARY <1>: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale category, LC_MONETARY: Aspects. (line 79)
* locale category, LC_NUMERIC <1>: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale category, LC_NUMERIC: Aspects. (line 94)
* locale category, LC_RESPONSES: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale category, LC_TIME <1>: Aspects. (line 84)
* locale category, LC_TIME: Triggering. (line 53)
* locale program: Header Entry. (line 71)
* localization: Concepts. (line 26)
* lookup message translation <1>: eval_gettext Invocation.
(line 8)
* lookup message translation: gettext Invocation. (line 9)
* lookup plural message translation <1>: eval_ngettext Invocation.
(line 8)
* lookup plural message translation: ngettext Invocation. (line 8)
* magic signature of MO files: MO Files. (line 9)
* Makefile.in.in extensions: po/Rules-*. (line 6)
* Makevars file: po/Makevars. (line 6)
* manipulating PO files: Manipulating. (line 6)
* marking Perl sources: Perl. (line 93)
* marking string initializers: Special cases. (line 6)
* marking strings that require translation: Mark Keywords. (line 6)
* marking strings, preparations: Preparing Strings. (line 6)
* marking translatable strings: Overview. (line 34)
* markup: Preparing Strings. (line 190)
* menu entries: Contexts. (line 6)
* menu, keyboard accelerator support: msgfmt Invocation. (line 187)
* merge PO files: msgcat Invocation. (line 8)
* merging two PO files: Manipulating. (line 10)
* message catalog files location: Locating Catalogs. (line 6)
* messages: Aspects. (line 108)
* migration from earlier versions of gettext: Prerequisites. (line 6)
* mkinstalldirs file: mkinstalldirs. (line 6)
* mnemonics of menu entries: msgfmt Invocation. (line 187)
* MO file's format: MO Files. (line 6)
* modify message attributes: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 62)
* msgattrib program, usage: msgattrib Invocation.
(line 6)
* msgcat program, usage: msgcat Invocation. (line 6)
* msgcmp program, usage: msgcmp Invocation. (line 6)
* msgcomm program, usage: msgcomm Invocation. (line 6)
* msgconv program, usage: msgconv Invocation. (line 6)
* msgctxt: PO Files. (line 193)
* msgen program, usage: msgen Invocation. (line 6)
* msgexec program, usage: msgexec Invocation. (line 6)
* msgfilter filter and catalog encoding: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 46)
* msgfilter program, usage: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 6)
* msgfmt program, usage: msgfmt Invocation. (line 6)
* msggrep program, usage: msggrep Invocation. (line 6)
* msgid: PO Files. (line 56)
* msgid_plural: PO Files. (line 213)
* msginit program, usage: msginit Invocation. (line 6)
* msgmerge program, usage: msgmerge Invocation. (line 6)
* msgstr: PO Files. (line 56)
* msgunfmt program, usage: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 6)
* msguniq program, usage: msguniq Invocation. (line 6)
* multi-line strings: Normalizing. (line 65)
* N_, a convenience macro: Comparison. (line 41)
* Native Language Support: Concepts. (line 51)
* Natural Language Support: Concepts. (line 51)
* newlines in PO files: PO Files. (line 283)
* ngettext: Plural forms. (line 84)
* ngettext program, usage: ngettext Invocation. (line 6)
* NLS: Concepts. (line 51)
* no-awk-format flag: PO Files. (line 150)
* no-boost-format flag: PO Files. (line 190)
* no-c-format flag: PO Files. (line 91)
* no-c-format, and xgettext: c-format Flag. (line 48)
* no-csharp-format flag: PO Files. (line 146)
* no-elisp-format flag: PO Files. (line 126)
* no-gcc-internal-format flag: PO Files. (line 178)
* no-java-format flag: PO Files. (line 142)
* no-kde-format flag: PO Files. (line 186)
* no-librep-format flag: PO Files. (line 130)
* no-lisp-format flag: PO Files. (line 122)
* no-objc-format flag: PO Files. (line 110)
* no-object-pascal-format flag: PO Files. (line 154)
* no-perl-brace-format flag: PO Files. (line 170)
* no-perl-format flag: PO Files. (line 166)
* no-php-format flag: PO Files. (line 174)
* no-python-format flag: PO Files. (line 118)
* no-qt-format flag: PO Files. (line 182)
* no-scheme-format flag: PO Files. (line 134)
* no-sh-format flag: PO Files. (line 114)
* no-smalltalk-format flag: PO Files. (line 138)
* no-tcl-format flag: PO Files. (line 162)
* no-ycp-format flag: PO Files. (line 158)
* nplurals, in a PO file header: Plural forms. (line 145)
* number format: Aspects. (line 94)
* objc-format flag: PO Files. (line 109)
* Object Pascal: Pascal. (line 6)
* object-pascal-format flag: PO Files. (line 153)
* obsolete entries: Obsolete Entries. (line 6)
* optimization of gettext functions: Optimized gettext. (line 6)
* orthography: Manipulating. (line 28)
* outdigits: c-format. (line 28)
* output to stdout, xgettext: xgettext Invocation. (line 48)
* overview of gettext: Overview. (line 6)
* package and version declaration in configure.ac: configure.ac.
(line 9)
* package build and installation options: Installers. (line 6)
* package distributor's view of gettext: Installers. (line 6)
* package installer's view of gettext: Installers. (line 6)
* package maintainer's view of gettext: Maintainers. (line 6)
* paragraphs: Preparing Strings. (line 101)
* Pascal: Pascal. (line 6)
* Perl: Perl. (line 6)
* Perl default keywords: Default Keywords. (line 6)
* Perl invalid string interpolation: Interpolation I. (line 6)
* Perl long lines: Long Lines. (line 6)
* Perl parentheses: Parentheses. (line 6)
* Perl pitfalls: Perl Pitfalls. (line 6)
* Perl quote-like expressions: Quote-like Expressions.
(line 6)
* Perl special keywords for hash-lookups: Special Keywords. (line 6)
* Perl valid string interpolation: Interpolation II. (line 6)
* perl-brace-format flag: PO Files. (line 169)
* perl-format flag: PO Files. (line 165)
* pgettext: Contexts. (line 33)
* pgettext_expr: Contexts. (line 112)
* PHP: PHP. (line 6)
* php-format flag: PO Files. (line 173)
* Pike: Pike. (line 6)
* plural form formulas: Plural forms. (line 165)
* plural forms: Plural forms. (line 6)
* plural forms, in MO files: MO Files. (line 66)
* plural forms, in PO files: PO Files. (line 213)
* plural, in a PO file header: Plural forms. (line 145)
* PO files' format: PO Files. (line 6)
* PO mode (Emacs) commands: Main PO Commands. (line 6)
* PO template file: Template. (line 6)
* po_file_domains: libgettextpo. (line 41)
* po_file_free: libgettextpo. (line 36)
* po_file_read: libgettextpo. (line 30)
* po_message_iterator: libgettextpo. (line 50)
* po_message_iterator_free: libgettextpo. (line 57)
* po_message_msgid: libgettextpo. (line 70)
* po_message_msgid_plural: libgettextpo. (line 75)
* po_message_msgstr: libgettextpo. (line 80)
* po_message_msgstr_plural: libgettextpo. (line 86)
* po_next_message: libgettextpo. (line 62)
* portability problems with sed: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 57)
* POTFILES.in file: po/POTFILES.in. (line 6)
* preparing programs for translation: Sources. (line 6)
* preparing shell scripts for translation: Preparing Shell Scripts.
(line 6)
* problems with catgets interface: Problems with catgets.
(line 6)
* programming languages: Language Implementors.
(line 6)
* Python: Python. (line 6)
* python-format flag: PO Files. (line 117)
* Qt format strings: xgettext Invocation. (line 244)
* Qt mode, and msgfmt program: msgfmt Invocation. (line 46)
* qt-format flag: PO Files. (line 181)
* quotation marks <1>: Header Entry. (line 145)
* quotation marks: po/Rules-*. (line 11)
* quote characters, use in PO files: Header Entry. (line 145)
* recode-sr-latin program: msgfilter Invocation.
(line 85)
* related reading: References. (line 6)
* release: Release Management. (line 6)
* RST: RST. (line 6)
* Scheme: Scheme. (line 6)
* scheme-format flag: PO Files. (line 133)
* scripting languages: Language Implementors.
(line 6)
* search messages in a catalog: msggrep Invocation. (line 8)
* selecting message language: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 6)
* sentences: Preparing Strings. (line 44)
* setting up gettext at build time: Installers. (line 6)
* setting up gettext at run time: Locale Environment Variables.
(line 6)
* several domains: Ambiguities. (line 6)
* sex: Introduction. (line 15)
* sh-format flag: PO Files. (line 113)
* she, he, and they: Introduction. (line 15)
* shell format string: envsubst Invocation. (line 8)
* shell scripts: sh. (line 6)
* Smalltalk: Smalltalk. (line 6)
* smalltalk-format flag: PO Files. (line 137)
* sorting msgcat output: msgcat Invocation. (line 146)
* sorting msgmerge output: msgmerge Invocation. (line 171)
* sorting msgunfmt output: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 144)
* sorting output of xgettext: xgettext Invocation. (line 317)
* specifying plural form in a PO file: Plural forms. (line 145)
* standard output, and msgcat: msgcat Invocation. (line 47)
* standard output, and msgmerge program: msgmerge Invocation. (line 56)
* string concatenation: Preparing Strings. (line 117)
* string normalization in entries: Normalizing. (line 6)
* style: Preparing Strings. (line 24)
* supported languages, xgettext: xgettext Invocation. (line 56)
* Tcl: Tcl. (line 6)
* Tcl mode, and msgfmt program: msgfmt Invocation. (line 43)
* Tcl mode, and msgunfmt program: msgunfmt Invocation. (line 26)
* tcl-format flag: PO Files. (line 161)
* template PO file: Overview. (line 67)
* testing .po files for equivalence: xgettext Invocation. (line 327)
* Tk's scripting language: Tcl. (line 6)
* translated entries: Translated Entries. (line 6)
* translating menu entries: Contexts. (line 6)
* translation aspects: Aspects. (line 6)
* Translation Matrix: Installing Localizations.
(line 6)
* Translation Project: Why. (line 17)
* turning off NLS support: lib/gettext.h. (line 6)
* tutorial of gettext usage: Overview. (line 6)
* unify duplicate translations: msguniq Invocation. (line 8)
* untranslated entries: Untranslated Entries.
(line 6)
* update translations from a compendium: Using Compendia. (line 20)
* upgrading to new versions of gettext: Prerequisites. (line 6)
* version control for backup files, msgmerge: msgmerge Invocation.
(line 71)
* wxWidgets library: wxWidgets. (line 6)
* xargs, and output from msgexec: msgexec Invocation. (line 14)
* xgettext program, usage: xgettext Invocation. (line 6)
* xmodmap program, and typing quotation marks: Header Entry. (line 157)
* YaST2 scripting language: YCP. (line 6)
* YCP: YCP. (line 6)
* ycp-format flag: PO Files. (line 157)

Tag Table:
Node: Top2959
Node: Introduction17213
Node: Why18836
Ref: Why-Footnote-122050
Node: Concepts22206
Node: Aspects25627
Node: Files32161
Node: Overview34070
Node: Users44006
Node: System Installation44917
Node: Setting the GUI Locale46609
Node: Setting the POSIX Locale47985
Node: Locale Names48924
Node: Locale Environment Variables51329
Node: The LANGUAGE variable53542
Node: Installing Localizations55442
Node: PO Files56797
Ref: PO Files-Footnote-168225
Node: Sources68352
Node: Importing69578
Node: Triggering70261
Node: Preparing Strings73461
Node: Mark Keywords82504
Node: Marking86817
Node: c-format Flag94547
Node: Special cases98466
Node: Bug Report Address101209
Node: Names103174
Node: Libraries106780
Node: Template109817
Node: xgettext Invocation110542
Node: Creating125667
Node: msginit Invocation126552
Node: Header Entry129178
Node: Updating136229
Node: msgmerge Invocation136444
Node: Editing141599
Node: KBabel141957
Node: Gtranslator142095
Node: PO Mode142237
Node: Installation143891
Node: Main PO Commands145855
Node: Entry Positioning150943
Node: Normalizing156411
Node: Translated Entries160905
Node: Fuzzy Entries162263
Node: Untranslated Entries165444
Node: Obsolete Entries167376
Node: Modifying Translations170601
Node: Modifying Comments178570
Node: Subedit182997
Node: C Sources Context186893
Node: Auxiliary192017
Node: Compendium195233
Node: Creating Compendia195848
Node: Using Compendia198332
Node: Manipulating199272
Node: msgcat Invocation203100
Node: msgconv Invocation207626
Node: msggrep Invocation210805
Node: msgfilter Invocation216689
Node: msguniq Invocation222597
Node: msgcomm Invocation226486
Node: msgcmp Invocation230531
Node: msgattrib Invocation232543
Node: msgen Invocation237228
Node: msgexec Invocation240563
Node: Colorizing243142
Node: The --color option244171
Node: The TERM variable245803
Node: The --style option247255
Node: Style rules248563
Node: Customizing less255305
Node: libgettextpo256708
Node: Binaries261824
Node: msgfmt Invocation262168
Node: msgunfmt Invocation269173
Node: MO Files273335
Node: Programmers281579
Node: catgets282761
Node: Interface to catgets284175
Node: Problems with catgets286184
Node: gettext287099
Node: Interface to gettext288602
Node: Ambiguities290932
Node: Locating Catalogs293647
Ref: Locating Catalogs-Footnote-1294877
Ref: Locating Catalogs-Footnote-2295103
Node: Charset conversion295252
Node: Contexts297706
Node: Plural forms303212
Ref: Plural forms-Footnote-1317411
Node: Optimized gettext317533
Node: Comparison318872
Node: Using libintl.a323142
Node: gettext grok323585
Node: Temp Programmers326226
Node: Temp Implementations326754
Node: Temp catgets328134
Node: Temp WSI329835
Node: Temp Notes331837
Node: Translators332340
Node: Trans Intro 0332803
Node: Trans Intro 1335552
Node: Discussions337516
Node: Organization341174
Node: Central Coordination343250
Node: National Teams344393
Node: Sub-Cultures346920
Node: Organizational Ideas347857
Node: Mailing Lists348878
Node: Information Flow350701
Node: Prioritizing messages352952
Node: Maintainers357251
Node: Flat and Non-Flat359207
Node: Prerequisites360700
Node: gettextize Invocation364857
Node: Adjusting Files372266
Node: po/POTFILES.in374053
Node: po/LINGUAS375302
Node: po/Makevars376994
Node: po/Rules-*377936
Node: configure.ac379407
Node: config.guess382421
Node: mkinstalldirs383776
Node: aclocal384181
Node: acconfig386165
Node: config.h.in386665
Node: Makefile388133
Node: src/Makefile390730
Node: lib/gettext.h395120
Node: autoconf macros397368
Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT398210
Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_VERSION402175
Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_NEED402630
Node: AM_GNU_GETTEXT_INTL_SUBDIR403523
Node: AM_PO_SUBDIRS404178
Node: AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION404973
Node: AM_ICONV405843
Node: CVS Issues408058
Node: Distributed CVS408649
Node: Files under CVS410577
Node: autopoint Invocation413851
Node: Release Management415691
Node: Installers416204
Node: Programming Languages417431
Node: Language Implementors418257
Node: Programmers for other Languages423085
Node: Translators for other Languages423669
Node: c-format425249
Node: objc-format426968
Node: sh-format427323
Node: python-format428128
Node: lisp-format428569
Node: elisp-format428898
Node: librep-format429391
Node: scheme-format429794
Node: smalltalk-format430073
Node: java-format430576
Node: csharp-format431027
Node: awk-format431405
Node: object-pascal-format431733
Node: ycp-format431965
Node: tcl-format432367
Node: perl-format432665
Node: php-format433413
Node: gcc-internal-format433781
Node: qt-format434826
Node: kde-format435261
Node: boost-format435667
Node: Maintainers for other Languages436215
Node: List of Programming Languages437453
Node: C438736
Node: sh440036
Node: Preparing Shell Scripts441310
Node: gettext.sh444702
Node: gettext Invocation445252
Node: ngettext Invocation447007
Node: envsubst Invocation448595
Node: eval_gettext Invocation450016
Node: eval_ngettext Invocation450477
Node: bash450991
Node: Python452970
Node: Common Lisp454120
Node: clisp C454920
Node: Emacs Lisp455635
Node: librep456361
Node: Scheme457096
Node: Smalltalk457880
Node: Java458914
Node: C#464710
Node: gawk473936
Node: Pascal474848
Node: wxWidgets476156
Node: YCP477063
Node: Tcl477802
Node: Perl479212
Node: General Problems482220
Node: Default Keywords485881
Node: Special Keywords486836
Node: Quote-like Expressions488352
Node: Interpolation I490630
Node: Interpolation II494423
Node: Parentheses496791
Node: Long Lines498312
Node: Perl Pitfalls500160
Node: PHP504405
Node: Pike505336
Node: GCC-source505997
Node: List of Data Formats506744
Node: POT507213
Node: RST507471
Node: Glade507697
Node: Conclusion508057
Node: History508563
Node: References512833
Node: Language Codes514480
Node: Usual Language Codes514995
Node: Rare Language Codes519369
Node: Country Codes521029
Node: Licenses526918
Node: GNU GPL528763
Node: GNU LGPL547946
Node: GNU FDL576085
Node: Program Index598474
Node: Option Index600360
Node: Variable Index647311
Node: PO Mode Index650218
Node: Autoconf Macro Index664312
Node: Index665119

End Tag Table

Man Man